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Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2015 


https://archive.org/details/reportoffarmersi1261farm 


STATE  COLLEGE  OF  WASHINGTON 

AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 

PULLMAN,  WASHINGTON 


DIRECTOR’S  OFFFICE 


INDEX 

TO 

GENERAL  BULLETINS 

1 TO  25 

BY 

H.  B.  CLEES 

SECRETARY  TO  THE  DIRECTOR 


April,  1917 


All  Bulletins  of  this  Station  sent  free  to  citizens  of  the  State  on 
application  to  Director 


Board  of  Control 


W.  A.  Ritz,  President  Walla  Walla 

E.  O.  Holland  (President  of  the  College)  Secretary  ex-officio  Pullman 

Wm.  Pease  Seattle 

A.  D.  Dunn  Wapato 

R.  C.  McCroskey  Garfield 

E.  T.  Coman  Spokane 


Experiment  Station  Staff 


Geo.  Severance,  B.  S . 

O.  L.  Waller,  Ph.  M.  . . 
A.  L.  Melander,  Sc.  D. 
O.  M.  Morris,  M.  S. 

A.  B.  Nystrom,  M.  S.  . 
Geo.  A.  Olson,  M.  S.  . 
W.  T.  Shaw,  M.  S 

E.  G.  Schafer,  M.  S. 
Wm.  Hislop,  M.  S.  ... 

F.  D.  Heald,  Ph.  D.  . . . 
C.  A.  Magoon,  A.  B.,  . . 
J.  W.  Kalkus,  D.  V.  S. 
M.  A.  McCall,  M.  S. 

J.  S.  Caldwell,  Ph.  D.  . 
M.  A.  Yothers,  M.  S. 
Henry  F.  Holtz,  M.  S.  . 

E.  F.  Gaines,  M.  S.  ... 

H.  M.  Woolman  

F.  W.  Allen,  M.  S 

C.  H.  Hunt,  M.  A 


Acting  Director  and  Agriculturist 

Irrigation  Engineer 

Entomologist 

Horticulturist 

Dairy  Husbandman 

Chemist 

Zoologist 

Agronomist 

Animal  Husbandman 

Plant  Pathologist 

Bacteriologist 

Veterinarian 

Dry  Land  Specialist 

Plant  Physiologist 

Assistant  Entomologist 

Acting  Soil  Physicist 

Acting  Cerealist 

Assistant  Plant  Pathologist 

Assistant  Horticulturist 

Assistant  Chemist 


G'bO-  7 
'Vh  2."!  b 
V 1-26 

INDEX  TO  GENERAL  BULLETINS  1 to  25 

WASHINGTON  AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 

By 

H.  B.  CLEES,  Secretary  to  the  Director 

GENERAL  BULLETINS  1 to  25* 

Number  Title  Author 

1.  Announcements  Geo.  Lilly 

2.  Report  of  Farmers’  Institute  Held  at  Colton 

Washington  Geo.  Lilly 

3.  Report  of  Farmers’  Institute  Held  at  Gar- 

field, Washington Geo.  Lilly 

4.  Wireworms  Jw  O’B.  Scobey 

5.  Report  of  Faimers’  Institute  Held  at  Pomeroy, 

Washington Geo.  Lilly 

6.  Horticultural  Information E.  R.  Lake 

7.  Two  Injurious  Insects C.  V.  Piper 

8.  Common  Fungous  Diseases  and  Methods  of 

Prevention:  Dodder Cl.  V.  Piper 

9.  Sugar  Beets Elton  Fulmer 

10.  Agricultural  Notes:  Wheats,  Barleys,  Oats 

Peas,  and  Forage'  Crops E.  R,  Lake 

Tl.  Preliminary  Report  of  a Feeding  Test  with 

Swine E.  R.  Lake 

12.  Forest  Tree  Plantation  J.  A.  Balmer 

13.  Washington  Soils Elton  Fulmer  and 

C.  C.  Fletcher 

14.  Silos  and  Ensilage  W.  J.  Spillman 

15.  Sugar  Beets  in  Washnigton Elton  Fulmer 

16.  Feeding  Wheat  to  Hogs W.  J.  Spillman 

17.  Insect  Pests  of  Garden,  Farm  and  Orchard  . . C.  V.  Piper 

18.  The  Babcock  Milk  Test W.  J.  Spillman 

19.  Vegetables:  Notes  on  the  Crops  of  1895  . . J.  A.  Balmer 

20.  Fibre  Flax  in  Washington A.  W.  Thornton 

21.  Suceptibility  of  Spermophiles  to  Pathogenic 

Bacteria A.  B.  Kibbe 

22.  Influenza S.  B.  Nelson 

23.  Some  Notes  Concerning  the  Nitrogen  Content 

of  Soils  and  Humus  Elton  Fulmer 

24.  The  Acid  Test  for  Milk  and  Cream W.  J.  Spillman 

25.  Pruning  Orchard  Trees J.  A.  Balmer 


*A11  of  Bulletins  1 to  25  are  out  of  print. 


INDEX  TO  GENERAL  BULLETINS  1 to  25 


(Numbers  in  black  face  type  designate  Bulletin  numbers;  others 
page  numbers) . 

Abies 12,  13 

Canadensis  12  14 

cephalonica  12  14 

Acer  12  9 

Achard  9 7 

Acid  Test  for  Milk  and  Cream  24 

AEsculus  Hippocastanum  12  9 

Agriotes  mancus  4 75 

Aims  of  Washington  Agricultural  College  2 21 

Alciatore,  H.  F 10  28 

Alsike  Clover  10  21 

Aluminum  in  Soils  13  10 

Alvorada  Sugar  Co 9 9 

Alvord,  T.  M 9 12 

Analyses  of  Soil  Samples,  Chemical  13  12 

Andre  23  3 

Announcements  1 

Anthomyia  brassicae  (Cabbage  Maggot)  17  51 

Aphididae  (Plant  Lice)  17  43 

Aphis,  Ash  Leaf  17  48 

brassicae  17  48 

Cabbage  17  48 

Cherry  17  47 

Elm  Gall 17  48 

Grain  17  47 

Green  17  46 

mali  17  46 

Wooly 17  45 

Apple  Scab  8 138 

Apple  Tingis  17  24 

Apple  Twig  Blight  8 138 

Apples,  Varieties  of  6 108,  25  24 

Apricot,  Varieties  of  6 108 

Arbor  Vitae  12  14 

Arsenical  Poisons 17  9 

Artichoke,  Globe  (Cardoon),  Tests  1895  19  13 

Ash 12  10 

Mountain  12  12 

Ash  Leaf  Aphis 17  48 

Aspidiotus  perniciosus  (San  Jose  Scale)  17  35 

Azoturia 5 93 

Babcock  Test 18 

Bacillus  amylovorus  (Pear  Blight)  8 138 

Bailey,  L.  H.  3 61 

Balmer,  J.  A 12,  19,  25 

Barberry 12  14 

Barley,  Crop  in  1893  10  27 

Variety  Tests  10  20 


4 


Barry,  Patrick  25  4 

Basswood  12  12 

Beans,  Lima,  Variety  Tests  19  12 

Beets,  Sugar  9,  15 

Variety  Tests  1895  19  13 

Berthelot  23  3 

Betula  12  10 

Birch  12  10 

Black  Knot  8 140 

Blackberries,  Varieties  of  6 109 

Blight,  Pear  Leaf 8 139 

Strawberry  Leaf  8 141 

Twig  8 138 

Blister  Mite,  Pear  Leaf  17  26 

Bonesteel  9 9 

Bordeaux  Mixture  8 133,  17  13 

Borer,  Currant  17  33 

Flatheaded  Apple  Tree  17  31 

Box-Elder  Bug  17  42 

Breal  23  3 

Broccoli,  Variety  Tests,  1895  19  10 

Bruchus  pisi  7 121 

Brussels  Sprouts,  Variety  Tests,  1895  19  17 

Bud  Moth  17  22 

Buhach  (Pyrethrum)  17  12 

Burnham,  J.  H 12  10 

Butternut  . 12  10 

Button  Wood  12  11 

Cabbage,  Aphis 17  48 

Keeping  in  Winter  19  7 

Maggot  17  51 

Plusia  17  52 

Plutella  17  54 

Worm,  Imported  17  49 

Worm,  Southern  17  50 

Variety  Tests,  1895  19  6 

Cacoecia  cerasivorana  (Cherry  Leaf-roller)  17  17 

rosaceana  (Oblique-banded  Leaf-roller)  17  16 

Cameron,  Edward  23  8 

Carbon  bisulphide  17  13 

Cardoon  (Artichoke)  Tests  1895  19  13 

Caprinus  12  10 

Carpocapsa  pomonella  (Codling  Moth)  17  14 

Carrots,  Variety  Tests  1895  19  14 

Catalpa  12  10 

Caterpillar,  Yellow  Woolly  Bear  17  34 

Zebra  17  53 

Cauliflower  and  Broccoli,  Variety  Tests  1895  19  10 

Celery,  Variety  Tests  1895  19  11 

Cheese  Factory,  Babcock  Test  in  18  24 

Chepman,  H.  P 25  9 

Cherries,  Varieties 6 108,  25  25 

Cheriry  Aphis  17  47 

Leaf-roller  17  17 

Chickory,  Variety  Tests  1895  19  16 

Child,  D.  L 9 8 


5 


Chlorin  in  Soils 13  12 

Chopped  vs.  whole  grain  wheat  for  feeding  hogs  16  8 

Chrysanthemums,  Varieties 6 109 

Chrysobothris  femorata  (Flatheaded  apple  tree  borer)  . . 17  SI 

Cinamon  Tussock  Moth 17  27 

Clisiocampa  erosa  (Tent  caterpillar)  17  19 

pluvialis  (Tent  caterpillar)  17  19 

Codling  Moth  17  14 

Colic,  Spasmodic  and  Flatulent 2 31 

Colton  Farmers’  Institute  2 

Copper  carbonate,  Ammonical  solution  of  8 133 

Corfn  and  Wheat  Compared  for  Feeding  Hogs  16  8 

Corn  for  silage 14  7 

Corn,  Sugar,  Variety  Tests  1895  19  11 

Corythuca  arcuata  (Apple  tingis)  17  24 

Cottony  Maple  Scale  7 123 

Courtright,  J.  0 3 63 

Crab  apple,  Varieties  6 108,  25  25 

Cream,  Acid  test  for  24 

Creamery,  Babcock  test  in  18  16 

Cricket,  Snowy  Tree  17  32 

Currant  Borer  17  33 

Currant  Moth,  The  Pepper-and-Salt  17  42 

Currant,  Varieties  6 109 

Cuscuta  arvensis  8 142 

Cutworms  17  29 

Cypress  12  14 

Diairy,  Babcock  Test  in  1$  4 

Farming  in  Washington  2 23 

Dairying,  Acid  test  for  milk  and  cream  24 

Farm  3 47 

Deciduous  Trees,  List  of  12  7 

Deherain  23  3 

Dewberries,  Varieties 6 109 

Diseases,  Insects  17  8 

Distemper,  Colt  3 65 

Horse  22 

Dodder  8 142 

Downing,  A.  J 25  4 

Elm  Gall  Aphis  17  48 

Elms  12  13 

Ensilage,  Silos  and  14 

Entomosporium  maculatum  8 139 

Epizootic  Catarrhal  Fever  22 

Eriocampa  cerasi  (Pear  or  Cherry  Slug)  17  25 

Eubyia  cognataria  (Pepper-and-salt  currant  moth)  17  42 

Evergreens  12  8 

List  of  12  13 

Experiments,  Proposed  1 9 

Fall  Web- worm  fl7  20 

Farrington,  Prof 24  7 

Feeding,  Hog,  Chopped  vs  whole  grain  wheat  16  8 

Wheat  to  hogs  16 

Feickert,  C.  W 23  9 

Felmly,  M.  W 23  8 

Filberts,  English  and  American  12  11 


6 


Fir  12  13 

Flatheaded.  Apple  Tree  Borer  17  31 

Flax,  Harvesting  20  8 

Rotation  with  20  7 

Seed  20  6 

Soil  for  20  6 

Washington  Fibre  20 

Flea  Beetle,  The  Small-Punctured  17  55 

Fletcher,  C.  C 13 

Forage  Crops,  Agricultural  Notes  on  10  21 

Forest  Tree  Plantation  12 

Trees  and  Shrubs  6 110 

Fraxinus  f 12  10 

Fruit,  Crop  1893  10  28 

Trees,  Kinds  and  Varieties  25  24 

Fruits,  Orchard  6 108 

Fulmer,  Elton  9,  13,  15,  23 

Fungous  Diseases  and  Methods  o Prevention  8 131 

Fusicladium  dendriticum  8 138 

Pyrnium  8 139 

Garden,  Care  of  19  19 

Insects  of  17 

Garfield  Farmers’  Institute  3 

Gennert  Bros 9 8 

Gooseberries,  Varieties  6 109 

Grain,  Aphis  17  47 

Handling  and  marketing  of  3 63 

Green  Aphis  17  46 

Gwinn,  C.  A 3 43 

Hawthorne  12  15 

Hay  Crop  in  1893  10  27 

Hedge  Plants  12  14 

Hellebone  as  an  insecticide  17  13 

Hemlock  12  13 

Hickorynut  12  10 

Hilgard  23  3 

Hogs,  Feeding  Wheat  to  16 

Honey  Locust  12  15 

Hop  Crop  in  1893  10  28 

Hornbeam  12  10 

Horner,  R,  M 8 143 

Horse  Chestnut  12  9 

Horticultural  Information  6 

Host  Index  of  Common  Insects  17  14 

Humus,  Nitrogen  Content  of 23 

Hyphantria  cunea  (Fall  Web-worm)  17  20 

Influenza  22 

Insect,  Diseases  of  17  8 

Pest  of  Garden,  Farm  and  Orchard  17 

Insecticides  17  8 

Contact  or  External  17  10 

Machines  for  applying  17  57 

Insects,  Beneficial  17  6 

Facts  about  17  5 

Host,  Index  of  17  14 


7 


Poisons  for  17  g 

Two  Injurious  7 

Institute,  Farmers’,  Colton  2 

Garfield  3 

Pomeroy  5 

Iron  in  soils  13  9 

Jaffa  23  3 

Japan  Quince  12  14 

Joffre  23  3 

Kerosene  and  Milk  emulsion 17  11 

Kibbe,  A.  B 21 

Kohl  Rabi,  Variety  tests  1895  19  15 

Lake,  E.  R 2 27,  3 60,  5 97,  6,  10  19,  11 

Lampyrid  beetle  7 124 

Larch  12  14 

Lawn  Plantings  G 109 

Leaf  Blight,  Strawberry  8 141 

Leaf  Curl,  Peach  8 140 

Leaf  Hopper,  Rose  17  49 

Leaf-Roller,  Oblique  Banded  17  49 

Strawberry  19  15 

Leek,  Variety  tests  1895  19  15 

Lentil,  Test  of  1895  19  13 

Leptocoris  trivittus  (Box-elder  bug)  17  42 

Lettuce,  Variety  tests  1895  19  17 

Lice,  Plant  17  43 

Lilly,  Geo 1,  2 21,  3 41,  6 85 

Lima  Beans,  Variety  tests  1895  17  21 

Lime  in  Soils 13  10 

Linden  or  Lime  Tree  12  12 

Locust  12  12 

Loose  Smut  of  Oats  8 134 

Macrosporium  Solani  8 137 

Maggot,  Cabbage  17  51 

Magnesia  in  soils  13  11 

Mamestra  picta  (Zebra  Caterpillar)  17  53 

Maple,  Kinds  of  12  9 

Scale,  Cottony  7 123 

Margraff  9 6 

Marketing  Grain  3 63 

Mays,  F.  W.  D 5 95 

McCroskey,  R.  C 3 54 

Meeker,  E 9 11 

Melanotus  communis 4 75 

Mereshkowsky  21  3 

Mildew,  peach  8 140 

Milk,  Acid  test  for  24 

Babcock  test  for  18 

Mor/rison,  E,  H.  . . 9 12 

Mountain  Ash  12  12 

Mountain  Fever  22 

Mulberries,  Varieties:  6 108 

Munn,  C.  E 2 31,  3 52,  3 65,  5 93 

Mytilaspis  pomorum  (Oyster  shell  scale)  17  40 

Myzus  cerasi  (Cherry  aphis)  17  47 

Nectarophora  granaria  (Grain  aphis)  17  47 


8 


Nelson,  S.  B 

22 

Nitrogen  Content  of  Soils  and  Humus  

23 

Noctuid  Moths  

17 

29 

Nut  Bearing  Trees 

12 

10 

Oak  

12 

12 

Oat  Crop,  1893  

10 

27 

Oat  Grass  

10 

21 

Oblique-band  d Leaf-Roller  

17 

16 

Oecanthus  niveus  (Snowy  Tree  Cricket)  .... 

17 

32 

Oedemasia  concinna  (Red  Humped  Caterpillar)  . 

17 

21 

Okra,  Variety  tests  1895  

19 

15 

Onions,  Variety  tests  1895  * 

19 

8 

Oospora  scabies  

8 

137 

Orchard  Enemy,  An  (Woolly  Aphis)  

6 

113 

Orchard  Grass 

10 

21 

Orchard,  Insects  of  

17 

Pruning  

25 

Organization  of  Station  

1 

7 

Orgyia  badia  (Cinnamon  Tussock  Moth)  . . . . 

17 

27 

Osage  Orange  , 

12 

15 

Otthia  morbosa  

8 

140 

Otto  

9 

9 

Oxnard,  H.  T 

9 

10 

Oyster  Shell  Scale  

17 

40 

Palmer,  T.  S 

21 

8 

Palmirski  

21 

3 

Parsley,  Variety  tests  

.19 

16 

Pea,  Variety  tests  of  

10 

21 

Weevil  

7 

121 

Peach,  Diseases  of  

8 

140 

Leaf  Curl  

8 

140 

Mildew  

8 

140 

Varieties  

6 

108 

Pear,  Leaf  Blight  

8 

139 

Leaf  Blister  Mite  

17 

26 

Scab  

8 

139 

Slug  

17 

25 

Twig  Blight  

8 

138 

Varieties 

6 108, 

19  9, 

25 

26 

Pemphigus  fraxinifolii  (Ash  leaf  aphis)  

17 

48 

Phosphoric  Acid  in  Soils  

13 

11 

Phoxopteris  comptana  (Strawberry  leaf-roller 

8 

141, 

17 

Phytophthora  infestans 

8 

136 

Phytoptus  pyri  (Pear-leaf  Blister  Mite)  

17 

26 

Picea  

12 

13 

excelsa 

12 

13 

pungens  

12 

13 

Pieris  protodice  (Southern  Cabbage  worm)  . . . . 

17 

50 

rapae  (Imported  Cabbage  worm)  

17 

49 

Pine,  Dwarf 

12 

14 

Pink  Eye 

22 

Pinus  mungus 

12 

14 

Piper,  C.  V 7 

121, 

8 

131, 

17 

Plane  Tree  

12 

11 

Platanus  

12 

11 

Plums,  Varieties 

6 

109, 

25 

26 

9 


Plusia  brassicae  (Cabbage  plusia)  

Plutella  cruciferarum  (Cabbage  plutella)  

Podabrus  comes  

Poisons,  Arsenical  

Pomeroy,  Farmers’  Institute  at 

Poplar  

Populus  

Potash  in  soils  

Potato  Rot  

Scab  

Variety  tests:  1895  

Pruning,  for  form  

Large  Limbs  

Orchard  Trees 

Ornamentals  

Root  . 

Western  Washington  _. 

Prunes,  Varieties  6 109, 

Prunus  Virginiana  var.  demissa  

Pseudotsuga  Douglasii  

Psylliodes  punetulata  (Small  punctured  flee  beetle)  

Pulvinaria  innumerabilisi 

Pumps,  Spray  

Pyretbrum  (Buhach)  ; 

Quercus  , ; 

Quinces,  Varieties  

Radish,  Variety  tests  1895  

Raspberry  Varieties  

Rea  vis,  J.  R 

Red-Humped  Caterpillar  

Resin  Solution  Spray  

Resources,  Farm  

Rhubarb,  Variety  tests  1895  

Robinia  pseud-acacia  

Rose  Leaf  Hopper  

Roses,  Varieties  

Salix  

San  Jose  Scale  ....'. 

Scale,  Cottony  Maple  

Oyster  Shell  

San  Jose  

Schizoneura  americana  (Elm  Gall  Aphis)  

lanigera  (Woolly  Aphis)  

Scobey,  J.  O’B 2 23,  3 47,  4, 

Seed  Flax  

Sesia  tipuliformis  (Currant  borer)  

Shell  Bark  Hickory  

Shipping  Fever  

Silage,  Changes  in  

Crops  for  

Taking  from  Silo  

Silica  in  soils  

Silo,  Construction  

Cost  of  

Floor  of  

Form  of 

Foundation  for 


17 

52 

17 

54 

7 

124 

17 

5 

9 

12 

11 

12 

11 

13 

11 

8 

136 

8 

137 

19 

18 

25 

21 

25 

25 

19 

25 

21 

25 

19 

25 

18 

25 

26 

8 

140 

12 

13 

17 

54 

7 

123 

17 

12 

17 

12 

12 

12 

6 

109 

19 

15 

6 

109 

9 

12 

17 

21 

17 

12 

5 

89 

19 

16 

12 

12 

17 

49 

6 

110 

12 

12 

17 

35 

7 

123 

17 

40 

17 

35 

17 

48 

17 

45 

5 

89 

20 

6 

17 

33 

12 

22 

10 

14 

5 

14 

6 

14 

8 

13 

9 

14 

12 

14 

18 

14 

11 

14 

8 

14 

11 

10 


Location  of  

Partitions  

Rectangular  

Round  

Ventilation  of  

Wooden,  Stone  and  Metal  

Silos  and  Ensilage  * 

Small  Fruits,  Kinds  v 

Snowy  Tree  Cricket 

Snyder  

Soda  in  Soils  

Soil  Analysis,  Clallam  County  

Clarke  County  

Island  County  

Jefferson  County  

King  County  

Kitsap  County  . . . .. 

Okanogan  County  

Pierce  County  

San  Juan  County  

Skagit  County  

Snohomish  County  

Spokane  County  

Thurston  County  

Whatcom  County  

Whitman  County  

Yakima  County  

Soils  of  Palouse,  Nature  of  

Soils,  Composition  

Nitrogen  Content  of  

Origin  of  

Washington  

Spanish  Chestnut  

Spavin,  Pathology,  Causes  and  Treatment  of  Bone  

Spermophiles,  Suceptibility  to  Pathogenic  Bacteria  

Spermophilus  columbianus  

guttatus  

musicus  

Spillman,  W.  J 14,  16,  18, 

Spinach,  Tests  1895  

Sphaerella  fragariae  

Sphaerotheca  sp 

Spilosoma  Virginica  (Yellow  Woolly  Bear  Caterpillar) 

Spraying,  Aparatus  for  8 133, 

Machinery  and  Manufacture 

Nozzles  

Sprays 

Spruce  

Squash,  Variety  tests  1895  

Squirrels,  Susceptibility  to  pathogenic  bacteria 

State  aid  for  Agricultural  College  

Stinking  Smut  in  Wheat  

Strangles  or  Colt  Distemper  

Strawberry,  Leaf  Blight  

Leaf-roller  

Varieties  

Sugar  Beet  


14 

14 

14 

.14 

14 

14 

14 

6 

17 

23 

13 

23 

23 

23 

.23 

23 

23 

23 

23 

23 

.23 

23 

23 

23 

23 

23 

23 

19 

13 

23 

13 

13 

12 

3 

21 

21 

21 

,21 

24 

19 

8 

8 

17 

17 

17 

17 

8 

12 

19 

21 

5 

8 

3 

8 

17 

6 

9 


3 43, 


Industry,  Status  in  U.  S 15  58 

Varieties  15  5 

Sugar  Beets,  Analyses  15  9 

History  in  Europe  9 6 

History  in  Nebraska  9 9 

History  in  United  States  9 8 

History  in  Washington  9 11 

Prices  paid  for  9 fl 

Tests  1895  19  U 

Sugar  corn,  Variety  tests  1895  19  11 

Sugar  Factory,  Value  to  Community  . . . 15  o7 

Sulphur-Salt-Lime  Wash  17  11 

Sulphuric  Acid  in  Soils  13  12 

Swine,  Feeding  tests  with 11 

Sycamore  12  11 

Tamarix  12  14 

Taphrina  deformans  8 140 

Tent  Caterpillars  17  19 

Thornton,  A.  W 20 

Thorpecher,  Dr 9 9 

Tilia  (Tree)  12  12 

Tilletia  foetens  8 135 

Tingis,  Apple  ' 17  24 

Tmetocera  ocellana  (Bud  Moth)  17  22 

Tobacco,  Tests  in  1895  19  18 

Tomatoes,  Variety  tests  1895  19  17 

Tree  Crop  for  Eastern  Washington  2 27 

Trees,  Evergreen  12  8 

Deciduous  12  7 

Trees  and  Tree  Growth  5 97 

Tsuga  12  13 

Turnips,  Variety  tests  1895  19  15 

Tussock  Moth,  The  Cinnamon  8 138 

Twig  Blight  of  Pear  and  Apple  8 138 

Typhlocyba  rosae  (Rose  leaf  hopper)  17  49 

Typhoid  Fever  22 

Ulmus  12  13 

United  States  Aid  for  Agricultural  College 3 41 

Ustilago  avenae  8 134 

Vegetables,  Notes  on  crops  for  1895  19 

Walnut  12  10 

Weather  and  Crops  of  Washington,  1893  10  25 

Weevil,  Pea  7 121 

Whale-oil  soap,  Solutions  of  17  12 

Wheat,  Compared  with  Corn  for  Feeding  Hogs 16  8 

Feeding  to  Hogs 16 

Growing  3 54 

Varieties  10  19 

Willow  12  12 

Windbreaks 3 60 

Wireworms  4 

Wickson,  E.  J 12  20,  25  8 

Woolly  Aphis  of  Apple 17  45 

Yellow  Woolly-Bear  Caterpillar  17  34 

Yews  12  14 

Zebra  Caterpillar  17  53 


12 


WASHINGTON  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE 
AND  SCHOOL  OF  SCIENCE. 


Experiment  Station, 


PULLMAN,  WASHINGTON. 


BULLETIN  1 


ANNOUNCEMENTS. 


DECEMBER,  1891. 


OLYMPIA,  WASH.: 

O.  C.  WHITE,  . . . STATE  PRINTER. 

1892. 


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WASHINGTON  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE 
AND  SCHOOL  OF  SCIENCE. 


Experiment  Station, 

PULLMAN,  WASHINGTON. 


BULLETIN  1. 

ANNOUNCEMENTS. 

DECEMBER,  1891. 


OLYMPIA,  WASH.: 

O.  C.  WHITE,  . . . STATE  PRINTER. 


1892. 


OFFICERS  OF  THE  STATION. 


BOARD  OF  REGENTS. 


Hon.  S.  B.  Conover,  President , . . . . 

Andrew  H.  Smith,  Treasurer 

Hon.  Eugene  J.  Fellows, 

J.  H.  Bellinger, 

George  W.  Hopp, 

Gov.  E.  P.  Ferry,  ex  officio  Advisory  Afeniber, 
George  Lilley,  Secretary, 

4 

LOCATING  COMMISSION. 

Hon.  George  A.  Black,  President,  . , . . 

Andrew  H.  Smith,  Secretary, 

Hon.  S.  B.  Conover, 


STATION  STAFF. 


George  Lilley,  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D. 
Director. 

John  O’B.  Scobey,  A.  M., 
Agriculturist. 

E.  R.  Lake,  M.  Sc., 

Horticulturist  and  Botanist. 

George  G.  Hitchcock,  A.  B., 
Chemist. 

Charles  E.  Munn,  V.  S., 
Veterinarian. 


Port  Townsend. 

Tacoma. 

Spokane. 

Colfax. 

Sedro. 

Olympia. 

Pullman. 


Fairhaven. 

Tacoma. 

Port  Townsend. 


GOVERNMENT  AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT 
STATION  FOR  WASHINGTON. 


By  Georg®  Lilley. 


The  Washington  Agricultural  College,  Experiment  Station 
and  School  of  Science  is  both  a state  and  a national  institution. 
It  was  established  by  act  of  our  last  legislature,  approved  March 
9,  1891.  Portions  of  the  act  are  as  follows: 

“Section  1.  There  is  hereby  established  an  institution  of  learning  to 
be  known  as  the  Agricultural  College,  Experiment  Station  and  School  of 
Science  of  the  State  of  Washington;  said  institution  to  be  located  as 
hereinafter  provided  on  a tract  of  land  containing  not  less  than  one 
hundred  and  sixty  acres. 

“ Sec.  2.  The  Agricultural  College,  Experiment  Station  and  School  of 
Science  created  and  established  by  this  act  shall  be  an  institution  of 
learning  open  to  the  children  of  all  residents  of  this  state,  and  to  such 
other  persons  as  the  board  of  regents  may  determine,  under  such  rules  of 
regulation  and  terms  as  may  be  prescribed  by  said  board  of  regents; 
shall  be  non-sectarian  in  character,  and  devoted  to  practical  instruction 
in  agriculture,  mechanic  arts,  natural  sciences  connected  therewith,  as 
well  as  a thorough  course  of  instruction  in  all  branches  of  learning  upon 
agriculture  and  other  industrial  pursuits. 

“ Sec.  3.  The  course  of  instruction  of  the  Agricultural  College,  Experi- 
ment Station  and  School  of  Science  shall  embrace  the  English  language, 
literature,  mathematics,  philosophy,  civil  and  mechanical  engineering, 
chemistry,  animal  and  vegetable  anatomy  and  physiology,  the  veterinary 
art,  entomology,  geology,  and  political,  rural  and  household  economy, 
horticulture,  moral  philosophy,  history,  mechanics  and  such  other  sci- 
ences and  courses  of  instruction  as  shall  be  prescribed  by  the  regents  of 
this  institution  of  learning.  * * * 

“Sec.  5.  That  a commission  of  three  be  appointed  by  the  governor, 
with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  senate,  to  select  a site  for  the  location 
of  said  Agricultural  College,  Experiment  Station  and  School  of  Science, 
who  shall  locate  said  College  and  School  of  Science  upon  land  selected 
with  special  reference  to  its  adaptability  for  the  purposes  intended  and  not 
for  its  pecuniary  value:  And  provided , That  none  of  the  commissioners 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


6 

so  appointed  shall  be  from  any  county  east  of  the  Cascade  Mountains: 
Provided  further,  That  said  commission  shall  not  consider,  receive  or  'ac- 
cept any  bonus  other  than  a tract  of  land  not  exceeding  three  hundred 
and  twenty  acres,  and  said  commission  shall  locate  said  College  and 
School  of  Science  on  or  before  July  1,  1891,  in  some  county  east  of  the 
Cascade  Mountains.”  * * * 

By  the  same  act,  section  11,  the  assent  of  the  legislature  of 
the  State  of  Washington  is  given  to  Carry  out  the  provisions  of 
the  congressional  acts  called  the  “Hatch”  and  “Morrill”  acts. 

The  locating  commission  met  and  organized  at  Olympia  April 
2,  1891.  After  the  commission  had  visited  and  carefully  con- 
sidered the  merits,  the  eligibility  and  natural  advantages  of  the 
many  localities  in  counties  east  of  the  Cascade  Mountains,  they 
made  their  report  to  the  governor.  The  following  paragraph  is 
quoted  from  this  report: 

‘ The  connnission'did,  on  this  25th  day  of  April,  1891,  meet  at  the  city 
of  Olympia,  and  after  balloting,  unanimously  decided  that  said  College, 
as  above  referred  to,  should  be  and  is  hereby  located  at  the  city  of  Pull- 
man, in  the  county  of  Whitman,  State  of  Washington,  upon  the  following 
described  tract,  piece  or  parcel  of  land,  containing  two  hundred  acres 
more  or  less.” 

PULLMAN 

Is  eighty  miles  south  of  Spokane,  and  is  located  in  the  famous 
Palouse  valley,  in  the  southeast  part  of  the  state,  and  in  the 
midst  of  the  finest  agricultural  and  horticultural  region  in  the 
world;  it  has  artesian  wells  of  pure  mineral  water,  and  is  very 
healthfully  situated.  The  town  is  well  supplied  with  churches, 
and  has  an  intelligent,  cultured  and  enterprising  population;  it 
is  accessible  from  the  south,  west  and  east  by  the  Union  Pacific 
Railroad,  and  from  the  north,  south  and  east  by  the  Northern 
Pacific  Railroad.  The  climate  is  all  that  could  be  desired.  Its 
climatic  conditions  from  year  to  year  are  not  variable.  There 
are,  on  an  average,  three  weeks  of  snow.  The  total  annual 
precipitation  is  about  forty  inches. 

THE  STATION  FARM. 

The  College  and  the  United  States  Experiment  Station  own 
a tract  of  two  hundred  and  twenty  acres  of  very  choice  and 
valuable  land,  consisting  of  valley,  side-hill  and  table  land. 


Bulletin  1. — December , 1891, 


7 


The  farm  is  about  one  mile  east  of  the  business  part  of  the 
town.  It  is  remarkably  well  adapted  for  horticultural,  fruit 
and  forestry  experiments,  for  grazing  and  hay,  for  the  culture 
of  the  various  cereal  grains  and  other  farm  products,  for  lawns, 
and  for  parks  and  campus. 

The  soil  is  of  great  depth  and  is  inexhaustible,  and  contains 
those  salts  and  silicates  so  essential  to  plant  life.  It  is  a sedi- 
mentary deposit,  evidently  of  volcanic  origin,  as  it  is  composed  of 
a sandy  loam,  disintegrated  basalt  and  ash.  It  is  very  porous 
and  readily  drinks  in  moisture  and  gives  it  out  as  needed,  allow- 
ing the  salts  to  rise  to  feed  the  growing  crops.  The  farm  is 
enclosed  and  the  greater  part  of  it  is  now  under  cultivation. 
During  the  past  year  it  has  produced  good  crops,  consisting  of 
wheat,  oats,  barley  and  rye.  A one-story  brick  building  60  by 
36  feet  has  been  completed,  at  a cost  of  about  $2,500,  which 
will  be  used  temporarily  for  class  purposes. 

THE  COLLEGE  CAMPUS 

Joins  the  farm  on  the  west,  and  is  beautifully  located  upon  a 
commanding  eminence  which  overlooks  the  town.  From  the 
upper  bench  of  the  campus  can  be  seen  in  the  clear  air  of  this 
region,  for  miles  in  every  direction,  a beautiful,  rolling  prairie 
country,  the  wealth-bringing  possibilities  of  whose  agricultural 
and  horticultural  resources  to  the  state  cannot  be  overestimated, 
whose  uniquely  formed  and  picturesque  hills  and  golden  grain 
fields  in  all  their  wealth  of  varied  beauty,  with  a dim  outline 
of  the  Bitter  Boot  Mountains  and  forest  in  the  east  and  north, 
and  the  Blue  Mountains  in  the  south,  form  a panorama  never 
to  be  forgotten. 

ORGANIZATION. 

At  a meeting  of  the  board  of  regents  May  1,  1891,  arrange- 
ments were  made  for  the  preparation  of  plans  for  the  College 
buildings  and  the  organization  of  the  experimental  work,  as  re- 
quired by  law.  The  board  of  regents  formally  took  possession 
of  the  land  selected  by  the  locating  commission  May  22,  1891, 
and  entered  into  active  arrangements  to  immediately  organize 
and  equip  the  station,  and  to  begin  experimental  work  and  com- 


*8 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

ply  with  the  provisions  of  the  “ Hatch  act;”  also  to  open  the 
College  and  organize  the  educational  work  of  the.  institution. 
With  this  end  in  view7  building  plans  were  adopted,  and  a con- 
tract for  the  construction  of  the  present  farm  building  was 
entered  into.  The  regents  were  soon  interrupted  and  prohibited 
by  legal  proceedings  from  executing  their  plans  for  the  organ- 
ization of  the  Station  and  College  work. 

The  supreme  court  of  the  State  of  Washington  has  recently 
handed  down  an  opinion  on  the  legality  of  the  questions  at  issue. 
This  decision  enables  the  regents  to  execute  their  plans  and  per- 
fect the  organization  of  the  work  as  contemplated. 

Preparations  are  completed  whereby  experimental  and  station 
work  will  be  commenced  early  in  the  spring.  Farming  tools, 
machinery,  stock,  etc.,  sufficient  to  carry  on  all  kinds  of  farm 
work  are  being  arranged  for.  A topographical  map  of  the  Col- 
lege campus  has  been  made.  The  lawns  and  walks  will  be  laid 
out,  ornamental  trees  and  shrubs,  arbors  and  parks  will  be 
planted. 

Plans  are  completed  for  the  purchase  of  an  outfit  of  chemicals 
and  physical  apparatus,  etc.,  for  the  chemical  and  physical  lab- 
oratory, necessary  for  the  analysis  of  waters,  minerals,  organic 
substances  and  other  purposes ; also,  microscopes,  spraying  ma- 
chines and  equipment  for  the  laboratory  work  in  horticulture 
and  botany;  also,  surgical  instruments,  models,  skeletons  and 
preserved  pathological  specimens,  etc.,  for  laboratory  work  in 
veterinary  art;  multiple  sets  of  carpenters’  and  joiners’  tools  and 
wood-turning  lathes,  etc.,  for  the  work  shops;  blacksmiths’ 
forges  and  necessary  tools,  engine  lathe,  iron  planer,  drill  press, 
steam  fitters’  tools,  an  assortment  of  hand  tools,  etc.,  for  the 
machine  shop;  surveyors’  transit,  compass,  wye  level,  solar  com- 
pass, chain,  steel  tape,  rods,  etc.,  for  the  work  in  surveying 
and  engineering;  a set  of  meteorological  instruments;  the  latest 
and  best  scientific  works  of  reference,  books  for  aids  in  the  vari- 
ous department  work,  as  well  as  the  leading  literary,  scientific 
and  technological  periodicals;  typewriters,  musical  instruments, 
etc.,  for  the  light  manual  trades  and  accomplishments;  sewing 


Bulletin  1.  — December , 1891. 


9 


machines,  furniture  and  conveniences,  etc. , for  work  in  domestic 
economy.  Stress  will  be  laid  on  the  manual  and  industrial 
studies  and  occupations  as  constituting  a distinguishing  feature 
of  the  school.  This  will  require  a fine  equipment  of  machinery, 
philosophical  and  laboratory  apparatus.  The  nucleus  of  a 
library  collection,  consisting  of  books,  pamphlets  and  publica- 
tions for  department  work,  is  already  secured. 

During  the  summer,  farm  buildings  and  shops  for  wood  and 
iron  work  will  be  completed;  also,  a dormitory  in  which  125 
students  can  be  roomed  and  boarded,  will  be  erected  and  fur- 
nished. As  soon  as  possible  farmers’  institutes  will  be  con- 
ducted by  the  members  of  the  station  staff  at  the  College  and 
in  different  parts  of  the  state. 

PROPOSED  TESTS  AND  EXPERIMENTS. 

So  far  as  circumstances  will  permit.  Professor  Lake  will  en- 
deavor to  make  tests  and  experiments  as  follows: 

HORTICULTURE. 

1 . Local  and  general  tests  of  the  older  and  newer  varieties  of 
all  the  hardy  orchard  and  small  fruits. 

2.  General  and  practical  tests  of  cultural  methods  with  refer- 
ence to  localities  and  soil. 

3.  The  introduction  and  dissemination  of  the  more  promising 
fruits  and  nuts  from  foreign  states,  particularly  Russia  and 
Japan. 

4.  The  improvement  by  selection  and  cross-fertilization  of 
our  native  fruits. 

BOTANY. 

1.  A systematic  study,  including  an  exhaustive  collection,  of 
the  state’s  flora. 

2.  Local  and  general  tests  covering  the  introduction  into  cul- 
tivation of  our  native  grasses,  clovers  and  other  forage  plants, 
as  well  as  the  more  promising  ornamental  herbs. 

3.  The  establishment  of  a botanic  garden  wherein  may  be 
gathered,  as  nearly  as  possible,  all  the  native  plants  of  the  state 
as  well  as  some  foreign  ones. 

O 


10 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station , 


4.  The  thorough  testing  of  grasses  and  other  forage  plants 
for  the  arid  sections  of  the  state. 

FORESTRY. 

1.  A general  study  of  the  forestal  conditions  of  the  state,  with 
especial  reference  to  forest  preservation  and  tree  growth. 

2.  The  testing  of  native  and  introduced  forest  and  ornamen- 
tal trees  in  the  treeless  portions  of  the  state. 

3.  The  collection  into  an  arboretum  of  all  the  native  trees 
and  shrubs  of  promising  economic  or  ornamental  importance. 

It  will  be  understood  that  the  above  is  only  a general  outline 
of  proposed  popular  work.  Each  section  embraces  many  spe- 
cific questions,  such  as,  the  selection  of  special  varieties  for  par- 
ticular localities  and  soils;  irrigation,  in  so  far  as  it  relates  to 
orchard  and  garden  crops;  deep  and  shallow  cultivation;  winter 
protection  of  tender  trees  and  herbs;  pruning;  evaporation  and 
other  methods  of  preserving  fruits,  etc.,  etc.  So  far  as  the 
strictly  scientific  work  of  this  division  is  concerned,  no  definite 
plan  of  action  can  be  formed  until  further  information  is  gath- 
ered relative  to  the  horticultural  and  forestal  needs  and  i*e- 
sources  of  the  state,  and  until  much  necessary  preliminary  work 
is  done. 

All  persons  interested  in  this  work  and  having  in  their  pos- 
session some  rare  or  little-known  fruits,  vegetables  or  ornamen- 
tal plants,  are  earnestly  requested  to  confer  with  the  division 
relative  to  having  the  same  tested  on  the  College  and  Station 
grounds. 

Contributions  from  nurserymen,  seedsmen,  collectors  and  origi- 
nators will  be  gladly  received  and  due  credit  given.  Exchanges 
will  be  made  when  possible,  and  guarantees  given  originators 
that  new  fruits  will  be  protected. 

The  results  of  station  and  experimental  work  will  be  an- 
nounced in  future  bulletins. 

The  Agricultural  College  was  founded  in  anticipation  of  the 
advantages  to  be  derived  from  the  land  granted  by  act  of  con- 
gress  in  July,  1862.  Under  this  act,  each  state  then  in  the  union, 


Bulletin  1.  — December , 1891. 


1 J 


and  every  one  afterwards  to  be  admitted,  was  granted  a quan- 
tity of  land  equal  to  thirty  thousand  acres  for  each  representa- 
tive the  state  had  or  shall  have  in  congress.  The  following  is 
quoted  from  this  act: 

“All  moneys  derived  from  the  sale  of  the  lands  aforesaid  by  the  states 
to  which  the  lands  are  apportioned,  and  from  the  sales  of  land  scrip,  shall 
be  invested  in  stocks  of  the  United  States,  or  of  the  states,  or  some  other 
safe  stocks,  yielding  not  less  than  five  per  centum  upon  the  par  value  of 
said  stocks;  and  the  money  so  invested  shall  constitute  a perpetual  fund, 
the  capital  of  which  shall  remain  forever  undiminished,  except  as  herein 
provided,  and  the  interest  of  which  shall  be  inviolably  appropriated  by 
each  state,  to  the  endowment,  support  and  maintenance  of  at  least  one 
college  where  the  leading  object  shall  be,  without  excluding  other  scien- 
tifical  and  classical  studies,  and  including  military  tactics,  to  teach  such 
branches  of  learning  as  are  related  to  agriculture  and  the  mechanic  arts, 
in  such  manner  as  the  legislatures  of  the  states  may  respectively  pre- 
scribe, in  order  to  promote  the  liberal  and  practical  education  of  the  in- 
dustrial classes  in  the  several  pursuits  and  professions  of  life.” 

The  “omnibus  bill,”  under  which  Washington  became  a state 
sets  apart  ninety  thousand  acres  of  land  for  the  agricultural  col- 
lege, and  one  hundred  thousand  acres  of  land  for  the  school  of  sci- 
ence as  a perpetual  endowment  for  these  institutions.  When  these 
lands  are  sold  and  the  proceeds  invested,  the  College  and  School 
of  Science  ought  to  be  independent  of  state  aid  for  its  current 
expenses. 

THE  HATCH  ACT, 

Passed  by  congress  and  approved  March  2,  1887,  provides  that 
a Government  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  shall  be  con- 
nected with  the  Agricultural  College,  as  a distinct  department, 
and  under  the  control  of  the  general  government;  also  that  the 
Station  shall  receive  an  annual  appropriation  of  $15,000,  and  be 
distinct  from  the  income  of  the  College. 

The  advantages  of  this  union  between  College  and  Station  are 
manifold.  Most  members  of  the  College  faculty  are  at  the  same 
time  members  of  the  Station  staff,  engaged  in  conducting  experi- 
ments and  making  researches  in  the  various  departments  of  agri- 
cultural science  and  practice. 

The  following  paragraphs  are  quoted  from  this  act: 

“ Be  it  enacted  in  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  of  the  United 
States  of  America  in  Congress  assembled , That  in  order  to  aid  in  ac- 


12 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


quiring  and  diffusing  among  the  people  of  the  United  States  useful  and 
practical  information  on  subjects  connected  with  agriculture  and  to  pro- 
mote scientific  investigation  and  experiment  respecting  the  principles 
and  applications  of  agricultural  science,  there  shall  be  established,  under 
direction  of  the  college  or  colleges,  or  agricultural  department  of  colleges 
in  each  state  or  territory  established,  or  which  may  hereafter  be  estab- 
lished, in  accordance  with  the  provisions  of  an  act  approved  July  second, 
eighteen  hundred  and  sixty-two,  entitled  ‘An  act  donating  public  lands 
to  the  several  states  and  territories  which  may  provide  colleges  for  the 
benefit  of  agriculture  and  the  mechanic  arts,’  or  any  of  the  supplements 
to  said  act,  a department  to  be  known  and  designated  as  an  ‘Agricultural 
Experiment  Station.  ’ * * * 

“Sec.  2.  That  it  shall  be  the  object  and  duty  of  said  experiment 
stations  to  conduct  original  researches  or  verify  experiments  on  the 
physiology  of  plants  and  animals;  the  diseases  to  which  they  are  severally 
subject,  with  the  remedies  for  the  same;  the  chemical  composition  of 
useful  plants  at  their  different  stages  of  growth;  the  comparative  ad- 
vantages of  rotative  cropping  as  pursued  under  a varying  series  of  crops; 
the  capacity  of  new  plants  or  trees  for  acclimation;  the  analysis  of  soils 
and  water;  the  chemical  composition  of  manures,  natural  or  artificial, 
with  experiments  designed  to  test  their  comparative  effects  on  crops  of 
different  kinds;  the  adaptation  and  value  of  grasses  and  forage  plants; 
the  composition  and  digestibility  of  the  different  kinds  of  food  for  domestic 
animals;  the  scientific  and  economic  questions  involved  in  the  production 
of  butter  and  cheese;  and  such  other  researches  or  experiments  bearing 
directly  on  the  agricultural  industry  of  the  United  States  as  may  in  each 
case  be  deemed  advisable,  having  due  regard  to  the  varying  conditions 
and  needs  of  the  respective  states  or  territories. 

“Sec.  3.  * * * It  shall  be  the  duty  of  each  of  said  stations, 

annually,  on  or  before  the  first  dajr  of  February,  to  make  to  the  governor 
of  the  state  or  territory  in  which  it  is  located  a full  and  detailed  report  of 
its  operations,  including  a statement  of  receipts  and  expenditures,  a copy 
of  which  report  shall  be  sent  to  each  of  said  stations,  to  the  said  commis- 
sioner of  agriculture  and  to  the  secretary  of  the  treasury  of  the  United 
States. 

“Sec.  4.  That  bulletins  or  reports  of  progress  shall  be  published  at 
said  stations  at  least  once  in  three  months,  one  copy  of  which  shall  be 
sent  to  each  newspaper  in  the  states  or  territories  in  which  .they  are 
respectively  located,  and  to  such  individuals  actually  engaged  in  farming 
as  may  request  the  same,  and  as  far  as  the  means  of  the  station  will 
permit.”  * * * 

“Sec.  5.  That  for  the  purpose  of  paying  the  necessary  expenses  of  con- 
ducting investigations  and  experiments  and  printing  and  distributing  the 
results  as  hereinbefore  prescribed,  the  sum  of  fifteen  thousand  dollars  per 
annum  is  hereby  appropriated  to  each  state,  to  be  specially  provided  for 
by  congress  in  the  appropriations  from  year  to  year,  and  to  each  territory 
entitled  under  the  provisions  of  section  eight  of  this  act,  out  of  any  money 
in  the  treasury  proceeding  from  the  sales  of  public  lands,  to  be  paid  in 


Bulletin  1.  — December , 1891, 


13 


equal  quarterly  payments,  on  the  first  day  of  January,  April,  July  and 
October  in  each  year,  to  the  treasurer  or  other  officer  duly  appointed  by 
the  governing  boards  of  said  colleges  to  receive  the  same,  the  first  pay- 
ment to  be  made  on  the  first  day  of  October,  eighteen  hundred  and 
eighty-seven:  Provided,  however,  That  out  of  the  first  annual  appropriation 
so  received  by  any  station  an  amount  not  exceeding  one-fifth  may  be  ex- 
pended in  the  erection,  enlargement  or  repair  of  a building  or  buildings 
necessary  for  carrying  on  the  work  of  such  station;  and  thereafter  an 
amount  not  exceeding  five  per  centum  of  such  annual  appropriation  may 
be  so  expended. 

“Sec.  6.  That  whenever  it  shall  appear  to  the  secretary  of  the  treasury 
from  the  annual  statement  of  receipts  and  expenditures  of  any  of  said 
stations  that  a portion  of  the  preceding  annual  appropriation  remains 
unexpended,  such  amount  shall  be  deducted  from  the  next  succeeding 
annual  appropriation  to  such  station,  in  order  that  the  amount  of  money 
appropriated  to  any  station  shall  not  exceed  the  amount  actually  and 
necessarily  required  for  its  maintenance  and  support. 

“Sec.  9.  That  the  grants  of  moneys  authorized  by  this  act  are  made 
subject  to  the  legislative  assent  of  the  several  states  and  territories  to  the 
purposes  of  said  grants.”  * * * 

THE  MORRILL  ACT, 

Passed  by  congress  and  approved  August  30,  1890,  provides 
for  the  more  complete  endowment  and  support  of  colleges  for 
the  benefit  of  agriculture  and  the  mechanic  arts.  Under  this 
act  the  Agricultural  College  will  receive  from  the  general  gov- 
ernment 115,000  for  the  first  year,  $16,000  for  the  second, 
$17,000  for  the  third,  and  so  on  until  the  annual  amount 
reaches  and  remains  at  $25,000. 

The  following  paragraphs  are  quoted  from  this  act: 

“Be  it  enacted  by  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  of  the  United 
States  of  America  in  Congress  assembled,  That  there  shall  be  and  hereby 
is  annually  appropriated,  out  of  any  money  in  the  treasury  not  otherwise 
appropriated  arising  from  the  sales  of  public  lands,  to  be  paid  as  herein- 
after provided,  to  each  state  and  territory  for  the  more  complete  endow- 
ment and  maintenance  of  colleges  for  the  benefit  of  agriculture  and  the 
mechanic  arts  now  established,  or  which  may  be  hereafter  established,  in 
accordance  with  an  act  of  congress  approved  Juiy  second,  eighteen  hun- 
dred and  sixty-two,  the  sum  of  fifteen  thousand  dollars  for  the  year 
ending  June  thirtieth,  eighteen  hundred  and  ninety,  and  an  annual  in- 
crease of  the  amount  of  such  appropriation  thereafter  for  ten  years  by  an 
additional  sum  of  one  thousand  dollars  over  the  preceding  year;  and  the 
annual  amount  to  be  paid  thereafter  to  each  state  and  territory  shall  be 
twenty-five  thousand  dollars,  to  be  applied  only  to  instruction  in  agricul- 
ture, the  mechanic  arts,  the  English  language,  and  the  various  branches  of 


14 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


mathematical,  physical,  natural  and  economic  science,  with  special  reference 
to  their  applications  in  the  industries  of  life,  and  to  the  facilities  for  such 
instruction.  * * * 

“Sec.  2.  That  the  sums  hereby  appropriated  to  the  states  and  terri- 
tories for  the  further  endowment  and  support  of  colleges  shall  be  annually 
paid  on  or  before  the  thirty-first  day  of  July  of  each  year,  by  the  secretary 
of  the  treasury,  upon  the  warrant  of  the  secretary  of  the  interior,  out  of 
the  treasury  of  the  United  States,  to  the  state  or  territorial  treasurer,  or 
to  such  officer  as  shall  be  designated  by  the  laws  of  such  state  or  territory 
to  receive  the  same,  who  shall,  upon  the  order  of  the  trustees  of  the  col- 
lege, * * * immediately  pay  over  said  sums  to  the  treasurers  of  the 

respective  colleges  or  other  institutions  entitled  to  receive  the  same,  and 
such  treasurers  shall  be  required  to  report  to  the  secretary  of  agriculture 
and  to  the  secretary  of  the  interior,  on  or  before  the  first  day  of  Septem- 
ber of  each  year,  a detailed  statement  of  the  amount  so  received  and  of 
its  disbursement.  The  grants  of  moneys  authorized  by  this  act  are  made 
subject  to  the  legislative  assent  of  the  several  states  and  territories  to  the 
purpose  of  said  grants.”  * * * 

“Sec.  3.  * * * An  annual  report  by  the  president  of  each  of 

said  colleges  shall  be  made  to  the  secretary  of  agriculture,  as  well  as  to 
the  secretary  of  the  interior,  regarding  the  condition  and  progress  of  each 
college,  including  statistical  information  in  relation  to  its  receipts  and 
expenditures,  its  library,  the  number  of  its  students  and  professors,  and 
also  as  to  any  improvements  and  experiments  made  under  the  direction 
of  any  experiment  stations  attached  to  said  colleges,  with  their  costs  and 
results,  and  such  other  industrial  and  economical  statistics  as  may  be  re- 
garded as  useful,  one  copy  of  which  shall  be  transmitted  by  mail  free  to 
all  other  colleges  further  endowed  under  this  act. 

“Sec.  4.  That  on  or  before  the  first  day  of  July  in  each  year,  after  the 
passage  of  this  act,  the  secretary  of  the  interior  shall  ascertain  and  certify 
to  the  secretary  of  the  treasury  as  to  each  state  and  territory  whether  it 
is  entitled  to  receive  its  share  of  the  annual  appropriation  for  colleges, 
* * * under  this  act,  and  the  amount  which  thereupon  each  is  en- 
titled, respectively,  to  receive.  * * * And  the  secretary  of  the 

interior  is  hereby  charged  with  the  proper  administration  of  this  law.” 

The  intent  and  purpose  of  these  acts  was  to  establish  an  in- 
stitution which  will  provide  such  intellectual  and  moral  training 
as  will  best  fit  the  young  men  and  women  of  the  state  for  all 
the  productive  industries.  With  this  end  in  view  the  following 
courses  of  study  are  now  offered: 

1.  Course  in  Agriculture. 

2.  Course  in  Mechanic  Arts. 

3.  Course  in  Domestic  Economy. 

The  course  in  agriculture  is  designed  for  young  men,  and  the 


Bulletin  1. — December , 1891. 


15 


course  in  domestic  economy  for  young  women.  The  course  in 
mechanic  arts  is  for  those  young  men  who  have  tastes  and  tal- 
ents for  any  of  the  mechanical  industries.  A short  course  in 
pharmacy,  designed  to  prepare  young  men  and  women  to  be- 
come druggists,  will  also  be  offered.  Also,  a course  in  civil 
engineering  will  be  added.  Many  of  the  light  manual  trades, 
such  as  stenography,  typewriting,  telegraphy,  wood  carving, 
photography,  etc.,  will  be  offered  to  all,  but  is  more  especially 
designed  for  the  benelit  of  such  young  women  as  may  desire 
some  means  of  support. 

PREPARATORY  DEPARTMENT. 

For  the  benefit  of  those  who  are  not  far  enough  advanced  in 
their  studies  to  enter  the  college  classes,  a preparatory  course  of 
one  year  is  offered.  Any  person  fourteen  years  of  age,  who 
understands  arithmetic  and  elementary  English  grammar,  who 
understands  geography,  who  can' read  and  write  with  facility, 
and  spell  well,  can  enter  the  preparatory  department  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  year. 

The  Agricultural  College  and  School  of  Science  will  be  opened 
on  Wednesday,  January  13,  1892.  Tuition  is  free  in  all  the 
departments  of  the  College. 


I 


• • v •'••••^ 


'■  . . . ..... 

. 


■ ■ 


WASHINGTON  AGEICULTUEAL  COLLEGE 
AND  SCHOOL  OF  SCIENCE. 


Experiment  Station, 


PULLMAN,  WASHINGTON. 


Bulletin  2. 


REPORT  OF  FARMERS’  INSTITUTE,  HELD  AT  COLTON, 
WASHINGTON. 


JANUARY,  1892. 


OLYMPIA,  WASH.: 

O.  C.  WHITE,  . . . STATE  PRINTER. 

1892. 


WASHINGTON  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE 
AND  SCHOOL  OF  SCIENCE. 


Experiment  Station, 

PULLMAN,  WASHINGTON. 


Bulletin  2 


REPORT  OF  FARMERS’  INSTITUTE,  HELD  AT  COLTON, 
WASHINGTON. 


JANUARY,  1892. 


OLYMPIA,  WASH.: 

O.  C.  WHITE,  . . . STATE  PRINTER. 

1892. 


OFFICERS  OF  THE  STATION. 

BOARD  OF  REGENTS. 

Hon.  S.  B.  Conover,  President, Port  Townsend. 

Andrew  H.  Smith,  Treasurer , Tacoma. 

Hon.  Eugene  J.  Fellows, Spokane. 

J.  H.  Bellinger, Colfax. 

George  W.  Hopp, Sedro. 

Gov.  E.  P.  Ferry,  ex  officio  Advisory  Member,  Olympia. 

George  Lilley,  Secretary, Pullman. 


LOCATING  COMMISSION. 

Hon.  George  A.  Black,  President,  ....  Fairhaven. 

Andrew  H.  Smith,  Secretary, Tacoma. 

Hon.  S.  B.  Conover, Port  Townsend. 


STATION  STAFF. 

George  Lilley,  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D., 

Director. 

John  O’B.  Scobey,  A.  M., 
Agriculturist. 

Edward  R.  Lake,  M.  Sc., 
Horticulturist  and  Botanist. 

George  G.  Hitchcock,  A.  B., 
Chemist. 


Charles  E.  Munn,  V.  S., 
Veterinarian. 


REPORT  OF  FARMERS'  INSTITUTE, 

HELD  AT  COLTON,  WASH.,  JAN.  30,  1892. 


The  first  of  a series  of  Farmers’  Institutes,  which  it  is  pro- 
posed to  hold  throughout  the  state  under  the  auspices  of  the 
Agricultural  College,  was  held  at  Colton  on  the  30th  day  of 
January,  1892,  Mr.  C.  W.  Richardson  presiding,  with  E.  E.  Al- 
ton secretary.  The  following  papers  were  read  by  the  several 
members  of  the  station  staff: 

THE  PURPOSES  AND  AIMS  OF  THE  WASHINGTON  AGRICUL- 
TURAL COLLEGE. 


SYNOPSIS  OF  THE  ADDRESS 

BY 

PRESIDENT  LILLEY. 

I can  do  no  more,  in  the  few  minutes  assigned  to  me,  than  to  at- 
tempt in  a very  brief  manner  to  give  a rough  outline  of  what  the 
purposes  and  aims  of  the  College  are.  Primarily  the  purpose  of 
the  College  is  to  teach,  and  I wish  that  idea  might  be  enforced;  I 
wish  it  could  be  understood  by  every  farmer  in  the  state  who  in- 
tends to  send  his  boy  and  girl  to  the  College.  I fear  that  there  are 
those  who  have  a misconception  of  the  work  which  the  College  is 
designed  to  do  — a misconception  of  the  purposes  of  the  College.  It 
is  the  purpose  of  the  school  to  teach  those  of  the  rising  generation 
and  to  prepare  them  for  the  industries,  the  responsibilities  and  the 
work  of  life.  That  institution  of  learning  will  do  its  work  well 
when  it  equips  the  boy  and  the  girl  for  the  work  which  the  demands 
of  the  future  shall  make  upon  them.  The  purpose  of  the  College 
is  simply  to  teach,  and  not  to  confine  itself  exclusively  to  the  work 
of  experimentation,  investigation  and  research. 

There  is  no  educational  value  in  the  mere  menial  employment  of 
following  the  plow  and  routine  farm  labor.  The  College  does  not 
require  that  a boy  should  be  thus  employed  in  order  to  be  well 


22 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


taught  and  to  become  an  educated  man.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  Col- 
lege to  teach,  and  primarily  to  teach  those  branches  of  learning 
which  underlie  and  which  relate  to  the  art  of  agriculture,  and  those 
branches  which  underlie  and  relate  to  the  mechanic  arts.  It  pro- 
vides courses  of  study  for  the  discipline  and  furnishing  of  the  mind, 
as  well  as  technical  and  professional  occupations  and  studies.  Its 
aims  are  to  give  a substantial  and  practical  education  to  young  men 
and  young  women.  It  teaches  the  sciences,  and  applies  them  to 
the  various  industries  of  farm,  shop  and  home.  It  covers  such  a 
course  in  the  English  language  and  literature  as  will  insure  reason- 
able skill  and  accuracy  in  speaking  and  writing  the  mother  tongue, 
a taste  for  reading,  and  a knowledge  of  the  use  of  books  as  instru- 
ments. It  includes  a good  course  in  mathematics,  surveying  and 
mensuration,  field  practice  with  chain,  compass  and  all  the  instru- 
ments necessary  for  practical  surveying.  It  covers  the  outlines  of 
general  history,  and  the  history  of  our  own  country,  including  the 
United  States  constitution,  business  methods,  forms,  laws  and 
ethics.  Chemistry  and  physics;  shop  practice  in  wood  and  metals, 
and  the  mechanics  of  farm  machinery,  with  special  stress  laid  upon 
laboratory  work,  are  all  made  prominent  means  of  teaching  the 
mental  faculties  to  quick  observation  and  accurate  judgment.  Care- 
ful study  of  the  plants,  minerals  and  animals  themselves  serve  to 
illustrate  and  fix  the  daily  recitations  in  botany,  mineralogy,  zo- 
ology and  entomology.  It  covers  extended  courses  of  instruction 
in  mechanical  and  civil  engineering.  The  College  will  also  teach 
useful  manual  occupations,  including  pharmacy,  printing,  teleg- 
raphy, photography,  taxidermy  and  plumbing,  for  the  benefit  of 
those  who  may  desire  to  make  any  one  of  them  his  special  trade. 

The  curriculum  is  so  arranged  that  several  different  courses,  each 
complete  in  itself,  are  offered.  Those  who  pursue  the  agricultural 
course  are  required  to  take  lessons  in  agriculture  and  horticulture, 
enforced  by  actual  experiments,  showing  the  application  of  science. 
A variety  of  studies  are  offered,  and  those  who  desire  to  do  so  can 
make  a selection  of  subjects.  In  all  its  departments  the  College 
trains  in  the  elements  of  the  arts  and  endeavors  to  impart  such  skill 
as  will  make  the  hands  the  ready  instruments  of  thoughtful  brains. 
It  trains  the  hand,  the  eye,  the  mind  and  the  heart.  It  aims  to 
give  such  general  information  and  discipline  of  mind  and  character 
as  will  help  to  make  intelligent  and  useful  men  and  women  and  to 
keep  its  students  in  sympathy  with  the  callings  of  the  people. 


Bulletin  2.  — January , 1892. 


23 


A higher  obligation  rests  upon  it  to  train  up  true  manhood  and 
womanhood,  than  to  train  up  a farmer  or  to  train  up  a mechanical 
or  civil  engineer.  . It  must  not  be  forgotten,  moreover,  that  it  is 
the  duty  of  the  College,  also,  to  train  for  citizenship. 

The  training  of  the  shops,  laboratories,  gardens  and  farm  is  a part 
of  a general  education  which  leads  to  usefulness  and  at  the  same  time 
insures  a means  of  living  to  all  who  make  good  use  of  the  oppor- 
tunity. Such  a training  preserves  habits  of  industry  and  manual 
exertion,  and  cultivates  a taste  for  home  and  rural  life.  The  in- 
dustrials taught,  or  the  subjects  by  means  of  which  theory  is  put 
into  practice,  wdll  require  the  time  of  at  least  an  hour  a day.  These 
subjects,  for  the  young  men,  include  carpentry,  cabinet  making, 
work  in  metals,  printing,  telegraphy,  stenography  and  typewriting, 
vocal  music,  farming,  care  and  management  of  stock,  gardening, 
fruit  growing  and  tree  planting,  military  drill,  laboratory  work, 
land  surveying,  irrigation,  road  building,  etc.  The  industrials  for 
the  young  women  lie  in  the  direction  of  the  home-making  arts  and 
accomplishments  — such  as  instrumental  and  vocal  music,  drawing, 
painting,  sewing,  dress  fitting,  cooking  and  serving  food,  house- 
hold economy  and  sanitation,  care  of  the  sick,  rural  architecture, 
landscape  gardening,  floriculture,  typewriting  and  stenography, 
telegraphy  and  printing.  In  short,  the  educational  work  of  the 
industrial  side  of  the  College  consists  of  science  with  practice. 


DAIRY  FARMING  IN  WASHINGTON . 

J.  O B.  SCOBEY. 

The  time  has  arrived  in  the  development  of  the  agricultural 
resources  of  this  state  when  the  cow  must  begin  to  receive  her  pro- 
portionate amount  of  attention.  Experience  has  taught  us  that 
under  proper  conditions  and  intelligent  management  there  is  no 
greater  source  of  profit  to  the  average  farmer  than  that  derived 
from  the  conversion  of  a reasonable  amount  of  the  product  of  his 
acres  into  table  food  in  the  form  of  butter  and  cheese. 

From  a very  short  period  of  observation  and  inquiry,  I am  led  to 
believe  that  with  the  majority  of  farmers  in  Eastern  Washington 
wheat  raising  is  given  more  attention  and  is  considered  of  more 


24  Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

importance,  at  the  present  time,  than  any  other  branch  of  farm  in- 
dustry. 

I am  quite  willing  to  admit  that  a harvest  of  forty,  fifty  and 
sixty  bushels  of  wheat  to  the  acre  is  a temptation  that  has  strong 
tendencies  to  lead  most  of  us  astray  from  a desire  to  be  troubled 
with  any  other  branch  of  farm  work  which  is  more  laborious,  which 
requires  more  attention  to  detail,  and  which  on  the  face  of  the  re- 
turns seems  to  render  less  profit  than  the;  raising  of  this  magnificent 
crop. 

To  me  there  appear  to  be  a great  many  reasons  why  our  farmers 
should  not  give  up  all  their  energy  to  raising  wheat,  and  I do  not 
know  that  it  is  necessary  for  most  of  them  to  even  reduce  their  acre- 
age of  wheat  to,  at  the  same  time,  enter  into  successful  dairying. 
What  I would  complain  of  is,  'that  any  farmer  should  stop  at  his 
crop  of  wheat  or  other  small  grain,  when  he  might  at  the  same  time 
operate  at  least  a small  but  fairly  well  paying  dairy. 

However  it  may  be  with  Washington,  experience  has  taught  us 
that  all  the  older  states  have  sooner  or  later  been  obliged  to  turn 
from  grain  raising  to  butter  making.  If  Washington  is  an  excep- 
tion, it  will  be  the  first.  Even  the  far-famed  North  Dakota  wheat 
fields,  which  some  said,  even  after  analytical  tests  of  the  soil,  would 
never  fail  to  yield  their  full  measure  of  “No.  1 hard,”  have  at  last 
been  obliged  to  push  aside  the  harvester  to  make  room  for  the  cow. 

I don’t  ask  you  to  lay  aside  your  seeder  and  sickle,  but  I do  in- 
vite you  to  consider  the  question  now,  and  from  this  time  on, 
whether  the  cow  shall  not  receive  a fair  portion  of  your  attention. 

You  can  begin  this  year  as  well  as  next.  How?  you  ask.  I an- 
swer, with  whatever  material  you  have  at  hand. 

An  erroneous  idea  prevails  with  many  that  to  begin  dairying  one 
must  have  a herd  of  thoroughbred  dairy  cattle.  While  that  would 
be  pleasant,  it  is  not  necessary  by  any  means.  Let  every  farmer 
begin  with  just  what  he  has  on  hand.  If  you  have  a cow,  I care 
not  if  she  never  even  had  an  opportunity  to  eat  grass  in  the  same 
field  with  a blooded  animal;  no  matter  how  “scrubby”  you  may 
consider  her,  give  her  a chance,  under  proper  conditions  with  proper 
feed  and  handling,  to  show  her  dairy  qualities  before  condemning 
her.  She  may  be  a valuable  cow.  If  after  a careful  test  she  is 
not,  then  discard  her  at  once.  Don’t  keep  a cow  a minute  in  your 
dairy  or  on  your  farm  unless  she  is  bringing  you  profit.  Test  her 
frequently,  keep  a careful  record  and  at  the  end  of  the  year  balance 


Bulletin  2. — January , 1892. 


25 


up,  and  you  will  then  know  which  cows  in  your  herd  are  making 
you  money  and  which  are  not. 

While  you  may  successfully  start  with  the  cows  you  have,  or 
which  for  a small  expense  may  be  added  to  your  herd,  do  not  be 
satisfied  to  continue  with  any  other  than  a thoroughbred  registered 
bull  at  the  head.  Some  think  a good  grade  bull  is  good  enough 
for  them.  A grade  bull  is  a curse  to  any  farm.  Get  a full  blood, 
then  your  increase  is  all  the  time  growing  better  instead  of  worse. 
You  may  start  with  a thoroughbred  bull  and  a native  cow  and  you 
can  in  breed  twice  without  danger  of  weakening  the  constitution  of 
your  herd.  A fresh  bull  should  then  be  introduced  to  the  increase. 

Some  question  has  been  raised  as  to  the  feed  necessary  to  keep 
cows  in  proper  form  for  dairy  purposes.  I have  heard  complaint 
that  the  grasses  are  giving  out  — especially  the  wild  grasses  in- 
digenous to  this  locality,  and  that  there  is  difficulty  in  securing  a 
satisfactory  growth  of  tame  grasses;  that  therefore  cows  cannot  be 
kept  up  in  their  milk. 

Proper  feed  properly  fed  is  a very  important  item  in  the  success- 
ful operation  of  the  dairy.  Grass  during  the  summer  months  is 
quite  essential,  and  this  station  will  make  a special  study  of  that 
subject,  with  extensive  experimentation  to  ascertain  if  we  can  de- 
pend upon  good  and  continuing  pasturage.  I think  it  can  be 
accomplished.  Cows  in  the  dairy,  however,  should  be  given  a 
grain  ration  during  the  summer,  even  when  on  good  pasturage,  if 
we  would  realize  the  best  results.  With  the  pasture  advantages 
you  now  have,  and  a liberal  grain  ration,  the  milk  and  cream  may 
be  kept  up.  Such  feed  you  can  afford  to  use  liberally  for  you  raise 
it  in  abundance.  Nothing  is  better  than  wheat  bran  and  ground 
oats  mixed  in  equal  quantities.  Both  are  here  grown  in  abundance. 

In  the  settlement  of  the  question  between  wheat  and  butter,  one 
of  the  first  points  to  decide  is  the  relative  profit  that  may  be  realized 
from  an  acre  of  ground.  In  other  words,  yea*r  in  and  year  out, 
will  an  acre  devoted  to  the  cow  yield  as  much  profit  and  do  as  much 
good  to  humanity  as  an  acre  devoted  to  wheat?  This  is  the  ques- 
tion we  are  called  upon  to  settle. 

I trust  that  the  farmers  of  Washington  will  give  this  subject  the 
careful  attention  it  merits. 

DISCUSSION. 

The  Chairman:  Mr.  Barkhuff,  will  you  give  us  your  views  on 
the  subject  of  dairying  — your  experience? 


26 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


Mr.  Barkhuff  : If  we  do  any  dairying  in  this  section,  we  must 
change  our  entire  system  of  farming.  It  now  requires  eight  acres 
of  our  bunch  grass  to  keep  a cow.  But  bunch  grass  is  about  ex- 
hausted, and  we  must  resort  to  some  other  material  for  pasture  to 
feed  our  cows  upon.  As  it  is  now,  cows  don’t  compare  with  wheat 
farming.  I consider  mixed  farming  the  best  system;  that  is,  when 
I raise  grain  I think  it  better  to  raise  oats  and  barley  as  well  as 
wheat.  No  doubt  this  matter  of  testing  each  cow’s  milk  is  a good 
thing.  I never  tried  it,  and  so  don’t  know  how  profitable  any  indi- 
vidual cow  I have  kept  has  been  to  me.  One  trouble  here  is  that 
our  wild  grasses  put  on  fat  instead  of  producing  milk.  Grain  pas- 
ture at  present  is  the  best  we  have  for  cows. 

President  Lilley:  How  many  acres  of  grain  pasture  does  it  tako 
to  keep  a cow? 

Mr.  Barkhuff  : I do  not  know. 

Mr.  Scobey  : I agree  with  Mr.  Barkhuff  that  if  it  takes  eight 
acres  of  grass  to  keep  a cow,  the  dairy  cannot  compete  with  the 
wheat  field.  We  must  produce  enough  on  two  or  three  acres  to 
keep  a cow  before  we  can  compete  with  wheat  in  this  country. 
We  shall  experiment  in  this  matter  at  the  station  and  ascertain 
if  it  can  be  done. 

The  Chairman  : Mr.  Ferguson,  we  should  like  to  hear  from  you 
on  this  subject. 

Mr.  Ferguson:  For  two  years  I milked  fifty  cows,  selling  the 
milk  here  for  cheese.  I am  satisfied  if  it  were  properly  carried  on 
it  would  prove  profitable.  The  last  year  I sowed  wheat  for  pas- 
ture, but  it  was  a dry  season  and  partly  a failure.  In  an  ordinary 
season  I think  I should  have  made  money  on  it.  I milked  my  cows 
eight  months,  and  I think  the  yield  per  cow  was  about  forty  dol- 
lars. Many  of  them  were  inferior,  but  I had  no  way  of  finding  out 
just  which  ones  they  were.  If  I could  have  picked  out  fifteen  or 
sixteen  of  the  best,  I think  they  would  have  returned  me  about  $75 
per  head.  As  it  was,  I lost  money  at  it. 

President  Lilley:  What  breed  of  cows  were  these? 

Mr.  Ferguson:  They  were  natives  and  grade  Holstein.  I had 
a Holstein  bull. 

Mr.  Barkhuff:  Our  plan  of  milking  is  of  the  “nip  and  tuck” 
style.  That  is,  we  let  the  calf  run  with  the  cow  so  long  that  it  is 


Bulletin  2.- — January , 1892. 


27 


hard  to  tell  which  gets  the  more  milk  during  the  year,  the  milker 
or  the  calf. 

Mr.  Richardson:  I think  we  ought  to  take  away  the  calf  at 
once.  One  cow  without  the  calf  being  left  at  her  side  is  worth  two 
after  the  calf  has  been  allowed  to  run  with  the  dam  for  any  great 
length  of  time.  As  soon  as  the  calf  is  old  enough  to  digest  ground 
feed,  I should  give  it  plenty  of  that. 

Mr.  Scobey:  I advise  you  all  to  test  your  cows  frequently,  by  set- 
ting the  milk  of  each  separately.  A cow  that  will  not  yield  from 
250  to  300  pounds  of  butter  per  year  should  be  taken  from  the 
dairy,  fed  on  your  bunch  grass  and  sent  to  the  butcher. 


THE  TREE  CROP  FOR  EASTERN  WASHINGTON. 

E.  R.  LAKE. 

This  great  section  of  our  state,  known  as  the  Palouse  country,  is 
remarkable  wherever  its  resources  are  well  known  for  its  wonderful 
soil  fertility,  its  rolling,  broken  surface,  its  treeless  hills  and  vales, 
its  wheat  crop  and  its  alkaline  water.  These  characteristics,  I say, 
are  familiar  to  every  one  who  has  seen  or  heard  of  this  section. 
But,  fortunately,  the  list  does  not  end  when  we  have  named  the 
above.  There  are  other  deeper-lying  peculiarities  that  with  develop- 
ment are  certain  to  bring  forth  industries  that  will  out-shadow  in 
significance  king  wheat  of  to-day.  Man  cannot  live  by  bread 
alone  is  a divine  injunction,  and  no  less  a physiological  impossi- 
bility. To  make  this  section  the  fit  abode  of  many  thousand  peo- 
ple, as  it  may  be,  we  must  needs  grow  something  else  than  wheat; 
and  foremost  among  those  crops  that  call  for  attention  is  the  tree 
crop. 

Between  the  Blue  Mountains  on  the  southwest  and  the  Bitter 
Root  on  the  east  and  northeast  lies  a vast  stretch  of  wind  swept, 
bleak,  bald  ridges,  with  intervening  valleys,  coves  and  glens.  Por- 
tions of  this  ought  to  be  covered  with  forest  growth,  thereby 
ameliorating  these  warm  southerly  winds  (locally  called  chinooks) 
and  the  cold  northerly  winds.  Forest  areas  hate  well  known  and 
marked  influences  on  climate,  modifying  both  the  cold  of  winter 
and  the  heat  of  summer.  There  are  many  phases  of  this  subject; 
but  only  two  of  especial  importance  face  us  just  now,  namely, 


28 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


forest  or  shelter  belts  and  orchards.  The  former  we  need  for  cli- 
matic and  timber  purposes,  the  latter  for  fruit  and  nut  production. 

The  growTth  of  forest  belts  has  been  favorably  shown  by  numer- 
ous farmers  who  have  within  the  past  few  years  planted  belts 
varying  from  ten  to  forty  acres.  And  it  is  found  that  a wide  range 
of  trees  make  reasonable  growth.  For  much  of  our  section  this 
phase  of  the  subject  is  already  settled,  save  perhaps  in  so  far  as 
coniferous  trees  are  concerned.  Most  of  the  forest  tree  plantations 
to  date  are  of  deciduous  trees.  Some  evergreens  ought  to  be  in- 
troduced. More  and  larger  plantings  ought  to  be  made.  Especially 
ought  the  nut-bearing  trees  to  be  represented  in  the  forest  planta- 
tions that  two  objects  may  be  attained  in  one  operation  — timber 
belts  and  nut  production. 

In  orchard  planting  we  have  even  less  done  than  with  timber  trees, 
save  in  the  Snake  river  locality.  For  many  years  after  the  settle- 
ment of  this  Palouse  section  the  people  thought  it  impossible  to 
grow  fruit,  but  in  the  last  decade,  little  orchards  have  appeared 
here  and  there  throughout  this  territory,  and  now  we  have  evidence 
sufficient  that  not  only  will  this  section  produce  good  wheat  but  it 
will  also  produce  good  apples,  pears,  plums  and  all  the  small  fruits. 
In  places  excellent  peaches  and  other  tender  fruits  are  produced  in 
abundance  and  perfection.  This  is  well,  for  nature  makes  no  mis- 
takes. And  here  we  have  only  another  illustration  of  the  eternal 
fitness  of  things.  Our  soil  is  rich  in  alkaline  salts,  or  chemically 
stated,  oxides  of  sodium  and  potassium.  These  substances  are  be- 
ing leached  out  in  greater  or  less  quantities,  by  the  dissolving 
snows  of  winter  and  the  gentle  rains  of  spring  and  fall.  A no  in- 
considerable quantity  of  these  materials  find  their  way  into  wells 
and  ponds  whence  man  and  stock  obtain  water.  The  continued 
use  of  such  water  tends  to,  and  often  does,  overload  the  system 
with  these  salts,  resulting  in  many  acute  and  some  chronic  dis- 
eases.* This  is  a fact  attested  by  many  of  our  best  physicians, 
and  is,  therefore,  a weighty  consideration  in  the  subject.  In  view 
of  this  fact  it  behooves  us  to  consider,  advisedly,  any  proposition 
that  promises  relief  from  such  evident  danger.  Fortunately  na- 
ture has  made  provision  for  just  such  a condition  of  affairs.  The 
substances  which  now,  with  a bread,  meat  and  vegetable  diet,  are 
taken  into  our  systems  and  work  havoc  in  the  form  of  fevers,  gas- 
tric, kidney  and  liver  troubles,  may  be  counteracted  by  the  use  of 


See  article  by  Dr.  J.  B.  Pilkington,  in  Fruits  and  Flowers  for  September,  1891. 


Bulletin  %. — January , 189%. 


29 


fruit  acids.  In  other  words,  if  we  would  increase  our  fruit  diet 
and  diminish  our  meat  diet  there  would  be  less  troublesome  ailments 
among  our  people  and  greater  physical  hardihood. 

With  the  numerous  examples  of  successful  tree  growth  before  us, 
it  is  not  difficult  to  draw  most  favorable  conclusions  regarding  the 
future  orcharding  of  this  section.  Our  soil  and  climate  are  not  un- 
suited for  this  industry,  so  far  as  the  hardier  fruits  are  concerned. 
The  demand  for  fruit  is  present  of  necessity.  The  only  question 
apparently  unsettled  is  the  one  of  financial  profit. 

The  period  of  “first  fruits”  is  past,  for  small  orchards  have  been 
bearing  for  several  years  in  various  parts  of  this  section,  and  with 
few  exceptions  the  results  have  been  most  flattering,  for  be  it  un- 
derstood that  scarcely  one  in  a score  of  those  that  are  bearing  to- 
day have  received  orchard  culture.  In  nearly  every  instance 
they  have  been  planted  and  cared  for  much  as  a wheat  crop  would 
be.  A hole  has  been  made  in  the  ground,  the  trees  stuck  in,  roots 
covered,  and  the  crop  watched  and  waited  for.  And  it  has  come, 
regardless  of  the  fact  that  the  trees  have  fought  their  own  battles, 
and  conquered  their  own  foes  without  the  fostering  care  to  which 
they  are  entitled  and  which  they  must  receive  from  the  cultivator 
if  the  best  results  are  to  be  attained. 

As  to  the  preparation  of  the  land  we  can  offer  but  little.  It 
should  be  deeply  plowed,  sifbsoiled  if  the  surface  soil  is  underlaid 
at  no  great  depth  with  an  impervious  stratum,  as  I am  led  to  be- 
lieve some  of  this  land  is,  and  thoroughly  pulverized. 

Plant  only  those  varieties  which  have  already  proved  hardy  or 
which  you  may  have  reasons  to  know  will  likely  prove  so.  In  the 
latter  case  it  may  be  well  only  'to  plant  a few.  In  this  matter  of 
selection  the  College  hopes  to  be  of  some  service  later  on  to  the 
orchard  and  garden  planters,  not  only  of  this  section,  but  of  the 
state,  as  it  is  expected  to  have  extensive  varietal  tests  carried  on 
in  various  portions  of  the  state. 

Any  plantation  of  trees,  whether  for  orchard  or  forest  purposes, 
must  be  well  cultivated  from  the  beginning  if  returns  at  all  satis- 
factory are  desired.  Unlike  wheat  growing,  tree  growing  will  not 
take  care  of  itself  and  give  first-class  returns.  Trees  need  constant 
care  and  study  to  give  the  best  results. 

Though  orchard  planting  may  appear  to  demand  our  first  atten- 
tion under  these  circumstances,  we  must  not  lose  sight  of  the  fact 
that  large  forest  plantations  would  avail  much  benefit  in  ameliorat' 


30 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


ing  the  climate,  especially  in  so  far  as  the  high  winds  are  concerned. 
Tree  planting  for  windbreak  and  forest  purposes  is,  in  fact,  among 
the  first  steps  we  should  take  in  this  much  needed  work. 

DISCUSSION. 

Mr.  Barkhuff  : Orchards  and  fruit  can  be  successfully  raised  in 
this  section.  I find  that  apples,  plums,  pears  and  cherries  do  well. 
Peaches  do  not  do  so  well.  They  will  produce  an  occasional  crop, 
but  owing  to  late  spring  frosts  the  trees  soon  perish.  Twelve 
years  ago  I planted  an  orchard  on  top  of  a hill  exposed  to  our 
southwest  winds.  This  orchard  has  now  given  me  crops  for  five 
years  without  a failure,  but  on  the  side  of  the  trees  exposed  to  the 
winds  very  little  fruit  has  been  produced,  and  in  fact  the  trees  are 
only  partially  developed  on  that  side.  With  windbreaks  I think 
this  would  largely  be  prevented.  The  only  serious  trouble  we  have 
to  contend  against  is  the  pocket  gopher.  We  have  no  green  aphis, 
woolly  aphis  or  San  Jose  scale.  Three  years  ago  we  had  some 
trouble  with  worms  in  the  fruit,  but  that  year  I mulched  the  trees 
liberally  with  straw  and  allowed  the  chickens  to  run  in  the  orchard, 
and  since  then  my  fruit  has  not  been  troubled  with  worms.  I 
think  the  worms  in  transforming  were  in  the  straw,  and  as  the 
chickens  scratched  around  they  found  them  and  ate  them. 

Mr.  Lake  : Is  not  the  outlook  good  for  seedling  fruits  raised 
and  propagated  here? 

Mr.  Barkhuff:  Yes;  I have  raised  a seedling  pear  from  the 
Fall  Butter,  which  I have  named  the  Washington.  It  is  larger, 
rounder  and  firmer  than  the  Fall  Butter,  with  fully  as  good  flavor. 

Mr.  Lake  : What  varieties  of  fruits  have  you? 

Apples. — Twenty  Ounce  Pippin,  Yellow  Newtown  Pippin,  Red- 
cheek  Pippin,  Gravenstein,  Winesap,  Gloria  Mundi,  Red  Astrachan, 
Red  June,  Early  Harvest,  Grindstone  Pippin,  Hubbardston  None- 
such, Northern  Spy,  Seek-no-Further,  Spitzenberg,  Grover  Cleve- 
land. 

Crabs. — Transcendent,  Hyslop,  Whitney. 

Pears.  — Bartlett,  Seckel,  Vicar  of  Winkfield,  Washington,  Fall 
Butter,  Sugar. 

Cherries. — Royal  Ann,  Olivet,  Governor  Wood. 

Plums.  — Bradshaw,  Coe’s  Golden  Drop,  Imperial  Gage,  German 
Prune,  Peach,  Washington. 


Bulletin  2. — January , 1892. 


31 


Mr.  Schultheis  : I am  raising  apples,  pears,  plums,  prunes,  and 
small  fruits.  I have  the  best  success  in  grafting  the  hardier  va- 
rieties that  we  raise  here.  My  orchard  is  on  flat  land  in  a cove 
sheltered  from  all  winds.  I cultivate  it  thoroughly. 

Mr.  Lake  : Do  you  grow  any  crops  in  it? 

Mr.  Schultheis:  No;  I give  it  clean  culture,  stirring  the  soil  as 
late  as  August  first. 

Mr.  Lake:  Are  you  troubled  with  the  codlin  moth? 

Mr.  Schultheis:  No. 

Mr.  Lake  : Or  the  green  or  woolly  aphis. 

Mr.  Schultheis  : No. 

Mr.  Lake  : Do  peaches  winter-kill? 

Mr.  Schultheis  : They  may  blossom  several  times,  but  early 
frosts  kill  the  blossoms,  and  after  a time  the  trees  die. 

Mr.  Lake  : Are  you  troubled  with  bark-bursting? 

Mr.  Schultheis:  No;  but  the  trees  scald  on  the  southwest  side 
in  summer,  but  I overcome  this  by  heading  low. 

Mr.  Lake  : Do  all  kinds  of  small  fruits  do  well? 

Mr.  Schultheis:  Yes;  they  grow  in  abundance. 


SPASMODIC  AND  FLATULENT  COLIC. 

CHAS.  E.  MUNN. 

All  persons  who  have  had  much  experience  with  horses  are  fully 
aware  that  colic  is  one  of  the  diseases  with  which  they  are  most 
frequently  afflicted.  Indeed,  every  stockman,  farmer,  liveryman, 
even  down  to  the  hostler,  has  an  infallible  specific  for  this  disease, 
and  will  tell  you  with  the  greatest  confidence  imaginable  that  there 
never  existed  a case  of  colic  his  formula  would  not  cure.  It  is 
very  true  that  some  of  these  remedies  are  very  useful,  others  are  of 
no  account  whatever,  while  the  majority  are  positively  injurious 
and  have  without  doubt  caused  the  death  of  many  a valuable  ani- 
mal that  might  have  made  a good  recovery  without  any  medical 
treatment  whatever. 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


32 


There  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  the  nature,  causes  and  proper 
•treatment  of  this  disease  are  not  understood  by  the  great  majority 
of  horse  owners,  and  we  will  discuss  from  a scientific  standpoint  in 
as  simple  a manner  as  possible.  The  first  question  to  consider  is, 
What  is  colic?  There  are  two  kinds  described  — spasmodic  and 
flatulent.  Spasmodic  colic  is  a painful  abdominal  affection,  a spas- 
modic contraction  of  the  muscular  coats  of  the  intestines,  which 
may  proceed  to  inflammation.  Its  causes  are  predisposing  and  ex- 
citing. In  some  horses  certain  kinds  of  food  have  a tendency  to 
produce  irritation  of  the  alimentary  canal.  As  in  man,  there  are 
certain  individual  idiosyncrasies  manifested  in  regard  to  certain 
foods.  So  it  is  to  a certain  extent  with  horses.  Some  horses  are 
predisposed  to  diseases  of  digestion  through  habits  of  gross  feed- 
ing, devouring  their  bedding  and  other  filthy  material  which  they 
may  happen  upon. 

Some  do  not  masticate  their  food  properly,  bolting  a feed  of 
grain  in  a few  minutes  that  requires  a much  longer  period  to  prop- 
erly prepare  for  the  digestive  process. 

The  exciting  causes  are  many.  Sudden  changes  of  food,  exhaus- 
tion from  overwork,  especially  when  the  animal  has  been  some  time 
without  food,  combined  with  a drink  of  cold  water,  will  often  pro- 
duce this  disease.  Damaged  food  and  excessive  quantities  of  food 
given  when  the  system  is  exhausted,  the  vital  energies  being,  as  it 
were,  tired  out,  the  process  of  digestion  is  arrested  to  such  a degree 
that  the  food  instead  of  being  digested  and  yielding  its  nutrition 
to  the  system  and  gradually  passing  out  of  it,  is  detained  and  acts 
as  an  irritant  to  the  structures  in  which  it  is  detained.  Chemical 
changes  take  place  which  by  producing  gases  distend  the  parts  in- 
volved, causing  much  distress  and  danger  to  the  animal  and  pro- 
ducing what  is  commonly  known  as  flatulent  or  wind  colic. 

The  symptoms  of  colic  most  of  us  are  familiar  with.  The  ani- 
mal becomes  suddenly  uneasy,  appears  to  have  a sudden  cramp  or 
gripe  of  pain;  if  in  the  harness  will  stop  and  attempt  to  lie  down; 
when  out  of  the  harness  will  paw  with  the  front  feet,  stamp  the 
ground  and  kick  at  the  belly  with  the  hind  feet,  look  anxiously 
around  at  the  flanks,  become  wet  with  sweat,  throw  itself  down  and 
roll  for  awhile,  and  then  perhaps  suddenly  jump  up  and  remain 
quiet  for  some  time,  apparently  free  from  pain,  and  in  some  cases 
entirely  recovered.  In  the  majority  of  cases,  however,  the  symp- 
toms return;  he  again  becomes  restless,  walks  around  the  box  if 


Bulletin  2. — January , 1892. 


33 


loose,  begins  to  paw  and  throws  himself  suddenly  to  the  ground. 
These  recurring  paroxysms  may  continue  for  some  time,  gradually 
becoming  less  severe  and  with  longer  intervals  between  them,  and 
finally  cease  altogether,  the  horse  resuming  his  normal  condition, 
or  they  may  become  more  severe  and  of  longer  duration,  various 
complications  ensue,  as  inflammation,  rupture  of  the  intestinal 
walls,  or  death  from  pain  and  exhaustion  will  ordinarily  end  a case 
of  unrelieved  colic. 

These  are  the  more  common  symptoms  of  ordinary  colic,  though 
there  are  some  others,  as  in  some  cases  detention  of  the  urine  from  the 
muscular  structure  of  the  bladder  being  affected  similarly  with  that 
of  the  bowel,  and  until  relieved,  its  function  is  arrested.  The  pulse 
and  temperature,  except  at  the  height  of  the  paroxysms,  are  rarely 
altered,  unless  in  protracted  cases  and  those  affected  with  compli- 
cations. In  flatulent  colic  where  there  is  undue  distention  of  the 
abdon^en  the  breathing  is  much  affected,  the  disteijded  intestines 
pressing  upon  the  diaphragm,  and  so  lessening  the  capacity  of  the 
thoracic  cavity  that  the  lungs  are  unable  to  expand;  the  system 
does  not  receive  its  necessary  supply  of  oxygen,  and  unless  quickly 
relieved,  the  animal  dies  of  suffocation,  or  it  may  be,  in  some  cases 
from  rupture  of  the  bowel  or  diaphragm. 

In  regard  to  treatment,  I may  truly  say  that  there  is  probably  no 
diseased  condition  of  the  horse  in  whicli  the  treatment  is  more 
varied,  the  modes  more  opposite  or  greater  in  number,  while  it  is 
surprising  to  note  that  they  all  have  facts  and  evidence  brought 
forward  in  support  of  their  success  sufficient  to  warrant  their  trial 
and  adoption.  We  find  in  practice,  that  in  treating  cases  of  colic, 
the  better  plan  is  not  to  adopt  any  one  line  of  treatment,  or  have 
any  particular  hobby  in  regard  to  any  certain  medicine  or  prescrip- 
tion, but  to  use  what  knowledge  we  possess  of  the  physiological 
action  of  the  digestive  tract,  and  of  the  medicines  which  should  be 
used  to  relieve  the  suffering  of  our  patient.  Such  a course  having 
been  successfully  pursued,  our  final  endeavor  should  be  to  prevent 
the  return  of  the  disease. 

In  the  more  simple  and  uncomplicated  cases,  indicated  by  un- 
easiness and  slight  abdominal  pain,  the  administration  of  a simple 
combination  of  an  anti-spasmodic,  an  anesthetic,  or  even  careful 
management  in  regard  to  diet,  work  and  shelter,  wTill  bring  many 
cases  into  a normal  condition  with  but  little  or  no  medicine.  In 
the  more  serious  cases  where  we  deem  it  expedient  to  evacuate  the 


34  Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

bowels  of  their  contents,  and  so  remove  the  cause  of  irritation,  a 
full  dose  of  aloes  is  given  in  the  form  of  a bolus  or  pill;  this  with 
injections  of  tepid  water  forms  a very  desirable  and  effective  evacu- 
ant.  In  addition  to  this,  in  cases  where  pain  is  distressing,  it  .should 
be  relieved  as  soon  as  possible  by  the  administration  of  from  one  to 
two  ounces  of  tincture  of  opium  combined  with  an  equal  quantity  of 
spirits  of  nitrous  ether  in  half  a pint  of  warm  water,  or  for  the  ether 
substitute  an  ounce  of  spirits  of  turpentine.  Another  useful  form- 
ula would  be  aromatic  spirits  of  ammonia  three  or  four  ounces, 
tincture  of  belladona  one  ounce,  with  fifteen  or  twenty  drops  of 
tincture  of  aconite.  If  the  abdomen  should  be  distended  by  gases, 
give  carbonate  or  bicarbonate  of  sodium  in  one-half  ounce  doses,  or 
one-half  ounce  of  aqua  ammonia,  one  ounce  spirits  of  turpentine  in 
eight  ounces  of  linseed  oil  (raw). 

The  surest  and  quickest  method  of  relieving  the  distended  bowel 
is  to  tap  or  puncture  it  at  the  most  distended  part  with  an  instru- 
ment made  for  that  purpose.  This  operation  should  be  performed 
on  the  right  side,  and  always  by  a person  thoroughly  acquainted 
with  the  anatomy  of  the  parts. 

This  operation,  if  performed  early  and  assisted  by  the  evacuants 
mentioned  above,  has  proved  very  successful  treatment. 

It  is  very  essential  to  success  in  treating  cases  of  colic  that  the 
treatment  should  begin  early,  before  the  animal  becomes  exhausted 
and  before  complications  occur  to  render  treatment  more  difiicult. 

During  the  attack  the  animal  should  be  kept  in  comfortable 
quarters  and  prevented,  as  much  as  possible,  from  rolling  and 
throwing  himself,  and  thereby  rendering  himself  more  liable  to  in 
jury  from  rupture  of  the  diaphragm,  or  entanglement  and  rupture  of 
the  bowels. 

DISCUSSION. 

Mr.  Scobey:  If  I were  ten  miles  from  the  office  of  a competent 
veterinarian  and  had  a horse  attacked  with  colic,  and  had  none  of 
the  medicines  you  mention  at  hand,  is  there  any  treatment  I could 
administer  that  would  relieve  the  animal  or  prevent  more  serious 
complications,  until  I could  secure  the  aid  of  the  veterinary  sur- 
geon— a sort  of  emergency  treatment? 

Dr.  Munn:  It  would  be  difficult  for  you  or  the  veterinarian  to 
treat  a patient  satisfactorily  without  any  medicines.  In  an  emer- 
gency one  might  give  injections,  nearly  every  house  has  a syringe. 
A dose  of  ordinary  baking  soda  with  a solution  of  red  pepper  would 


Bulletin  2. — January , 189%. 


35 


help  if  the  animal  is  bloated;  also  could  give  from  a pint  to  a quart 
of  raw  linseed  oil  with  an  ounce  or  so  of  turpentine.  Every  one 
with  valuable  horses  and  living  some  distance  from  a veterinary  sur- 
geon should  have  a few  simple  remedies  on  hand. 

Mr.  Johnson:  Would  a large  dose  of  red  pepper  be  likely  to 
* kill  a horse  ? I know  of  an  instance  where  a horse  died  in  fifteen 
minutes  after  having  been  given  a big  doSe  of  red  pepper. 

Dr.  Munn:  It  is  not  likely  the  pepper  killed  the  horse.  Even 
a large  dose  is  not  likely  to  do  that.  The  horse  would  have  proba- 
bly died  just  the  same  without  it.  I have  seen  a horse  die  very 
shortly  after  getting  a dose  of  harmless  medicine. 

Mr.  N.  T.  Shirley:  Would  bleeding  cure  a case  of  colic? 

Dr.  Munn:  Not  likely  to  do  any  good;  better  olf  without  it. 

Mr.  Ferguson:  Would  it  do  to  use  boiled  linseed  oil? 

Dr.  Munn:  Never  use  boiled  linseed  oil.  You  could  use  castor 
oil.  These  remedies  I have  mentioned  would  do  no  harm,  at  least, 
and  might  be  of  assistance  until  more  effective  treatment  could  be 
procured. 


ATTENDANCE. 

The  following  persons  were  in  attendance: 


B.  J.  Wiggins, Colton. 

Charles  Cook, Colton. 

W.  J.  Davis,  Colton. 

John  M.  Maynard, Colton. 

James  Wiley, Colton. 

Walter  Kelley, Colton. 

C.  W.  Richardson, Colton. 

M.  A.  Ferguson, Colton. 

Dr.  McCollumn,  . . • Colton. 

J.  L.  Flowers, Colton. 

Geo.  W.  Barkhulf, Colton. 

W.  D.  Barkhuff, Colton. 

Mr.  Leisure, Colton. 

W.  P.  Murphy, : . Colton. 

Joseph  Kirshner, Colton. 

Wm.  Smith, Colton. 

E.  E.  Alton, Colton. 


36 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


W.  W.  Renfro,  . . 

Thos.  Gaston, 

James  Sewalt, 

Al.  Rooks, 

W.  W.  Parks,  . . 

W.  F.  M.  Ricketts, 
John  Boyles, 

Chas.  Kerns, 

Lafe  Elliott,  . 

John  Enstler, 

John  Kramer, 

Geo.  Story, 

J.  W.  Ceaser, 

J.  B.  Watson, 

Alex.  McNevan, 

N.  T.  Shirley,  . . 

Riley  Standley,  . 
James  E.  Duff,  . 
John  Black,  . 

Adam  Black, 

S.  J.  Courtney,  . 
Miss  Kate  Camp, 
Mrs.  Hugh  Barnett, 
Prof.  O.  Mattoon,  . 
Lew  Wiggins, 
Bernard  Wiggins, 
Mr.  Blatchley, 

Benj.  Taylor, 
William  Richardson, 
M iss  Mary  Maynard, 
Frank  Harper, 

Thos.  Winsted,  . 
Frank  Richardson,  . 
John  Shrader, 

Frank  Moras, 

Andy  Maxwell,  . 

J.  J.  Johnson, 

Mrs.  J.  J.  Johnson, 
Mr.  Schultheis,  . 

P.  E.  Paradis, 

Mr.  Shammer, 

James  Warfield,  . 

H.  W.  Baum,  . . 

E.  Q.  Merriman, 


Colton. 

Colton. 

Colton. 

Colton. 

Colton. 

Colton. 

Colton. 

Colton. 

Colton. 

Colton. 

Colton. 

Colton. 

Colton. 

Colton. 

Colton. 

Colton. 

Colton. 

Colton. 

Colton. 

Colton. 

Colton. 

Colton. 

Colton. 

Colton. 

Colton. 

Colton. 

Colton. 

Colton. 

Colton. 

Colton. 

Colton. 

Colton. 

Colton. 

Colton. 

Colton. 

Johnson. 

Johnson. 

Johnson. 

Uniontown. 

Uniontown. 

Uniontown. 

Asotin. 


Pullman. 

Pullman. 


STATE  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE  AND 
SCHOOL  OE  SCIENCE. 


Experiment  Station, 


PULLMAN,  WASHINGTON. 


Bulletin  3. 


REPORT  OF  FARMERS’  INSTITUTE,  HELD  AT  GARFIELD, 
WASHINGTON. 


FEBRUARY,  1892. 


OLYMPIA,  WASH.: 

O.  C.  WHITE,  . . . STATE  PRINTER. 

' 1892. 


STATE  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE  AND 
SCHOOL  OE  SCIENCE. 


Experiment  Station, 

PULLMAN,  WASHINGTON. 


BtTLiUETiN  3. 


REPORT  OF  FARMERS’  INSTITUTE,  HELD  AT  GARFIELD, 
WASHINGTON. 


FEBRUARY,  1892. 


OLYMPIA,  WASH.: 
O.  C.  WHITE,  . . . 


STATE  PRINTER. 


STATION  OFFICERS. 


BOARD  OF  REGENTS. 


Hon.  S.  B.  Conover,  President,  ..... 

Andrew  H.  Smith,  Treasurer, 

Hon.  Eugene  J.  Fellows,  

J.  H.  Bellinger, 

George  W.  Hopp, 

Gov.  E.  P.  Ferry,  ex  officio  Advisory  Member, 


Port  Townsend. 

Tacoma. 

Spokane. 

Colfax. 

Sedro. 

Olympia. 


George  Lilley,  Secretary, 


Pullman. 


STATION  STAFF. 

George  Lilley,  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D., 

Director. 

John  O’B.  Scobey,  A.  M. , 
Agriculturist. 

Edward  R.  Lake,  M.  Sc., 
Horticulturist  and  Botanist. 

George  G.  Hitchcock,  A.  B., 
Chemist. 

Charles  E.  Munn,  V.  S., 
Veterinarian. 


ASSISTANTS. 


Edward  J.  Cheatham, 
Foreman  of  the  Farm. 

Robert  Joynt, 
Teamster. 

E.  Quimby  Merriman, 
Mailing  Clerk. 


REPOET  OF  FARMERS’  INSTITUTE, 

HELD  AT  GARFIELD,  WASH.,  FEB.  20,  1892. 


The  second  institute  of  the  present  series  convened  at  Gar- 
field, Whitman  county,  Saturday,  February  20.  President 
Lilley  called  the  meeting  to  order,  whereupon  Senator  R.  C. 
McCroskey  was  elected  chairman  and  A.  S.  Beach  secretary. 

The  chairman,  in  announcing  the  object  of  the  meeting,  stated 
that  the  Agricultural  College  faculty  were  present  to  discuss 
with  others  various  subjects  of  interest  to  the  farmer,  and  also 
to  explain  the  objects  and  workings  of  the  College.  The  farmers 
were  present  to  aid  in  the  consideration  of  the  subjects  to  be 
discussed.  In  the  consideration  of  topics  of  interest  to  the 
Palouse  section  these  gentlemen  desire  to  learn  all  they  can 
about  our  peculiar  soil  and  climate,  and  we  trust  all  will  aid  in 
this  commendable  work  by  shedding  whatever  light  they  can  on 
the  questions  asked  and  points  discussed. 

Following  a choice  vocal  selection  rendered  by  the  home 
choir,  the  following  subject  was  first  considered: 

GOVERNMENT  AID  FOR  THE  COLLEGE. 

EXTRACTS  FROM  THE  ADDRESS 
OF 

PRESIDENT  LILLEY. 

The  Agricultural  College,  Experiment  Station  and  School  of  Science 
is  both  a state  and  a national  institution.  It  was  organized  by  an  act  of 
the  state  legislature,  approved  March  9,  1891,  accepting  the  provisions 
of  the  congressional  acts  of  1862,  1887  and  1890. 

The  act  of  1862  provides  for  a perpetual  endowment,  which  is  to  be  ob- 
tained from  the  selection,  location  and  sale  of  the  public  lands  of  this  state; 
also,  that  the  money  derived  from  the  sale  of  these  lands  shall  be  invested 
in  stocks  of  the  United  States  or  of  this  state,  or  some  other  safe  stocks, 
yielding  not  less  than  five  percent,  per  annum  upon  the  par  value  of  the 
stock.  The  money  so  invested  must  constitute  a perpetual  fund,  the 


42 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station . 


capital  of  which  must  remain  forever  undiminished.  Only  the  interest  of 
this  capital  can  be  used  for  the  endowment,  support  and  maintenance  of 
the  College.  This  perpetual  endowment  was  fixed  by  the  congressional 
act  under  which  Washington  became  a state  at  ninety  thousand  acres  of 
land  for  the  Agricultural  College,  and  one  hundred  thousand  acres  of 
land  for  the  School  of  Science.  The  same  act  also  provides  that  these 
lands  cannot  be  sold  for  less  than  ten  dollars  per  acre.  These  are  con- 
sidered extremely  low  figures  for  the  value  of  the  college  lands,  and  those 
who  are  informed  on  the  subject  estimate  a fair  valuation  to  be  several 
times  these  figures.  The  endowment  secured  by  the  act  of  1862  is  for 
the  exclusive  purpose  of  teaching  or  imparting  information  already 
acquired. 

The  act  of  1887,  called  the  “Hatch  Act,”  provides  for  the  establish- 
ment, support  and  maintenance  of  a Government  Experimental  Station 
to  be  connected  with  the  College. 

The  Experimental  Station  is  under  the  direct  supervision  and  control 
of  the  federal  government.  The  annual  payment,  secured  by  the  act  of 
1887,  is  to  be  wholly  devoted  to  the  acquisition  of  information  and  in 
research.  This  research  is  to  be  in  the  field  of  agriculture  and  in  the 
sciences  which  underlie  and  are  directly  related  to  agriculture. 

The  United  States  government  makes  it  the  duty  of  the  station  to  con- 
duct original  researches  and  verify  experiments  on  the  physiology  of 
plants  and  animals;  the  diseases  to  which  they  are  subject  and  the  rem- 
edies for  the  same;  the  chemical  composition  and  analysis  of  plants,  soils 
and  water;  the  advantage  of  rotation  in  the  growing  of  crops;  the  capacity 
of  new  plants  and  trees  for  acclimation;  the  adaptation  and  value  of 
grasses  and  forage  plants;  the  chemical  composition  of  manures  with  ex- 
periments to  test  their  effect  and  value  on  crops  of  different  kinds;  tests 
on  the  several  varieties  of  food  for  domestic  animals;  experiments  in- 
volving the  production  of  butter  and  cheese,  and  such  other  tests  and 
experiments  bearing  directly  upon  the  agricultural  and  horticultural  in- 
dustry of  the  state  as  may  be  deemed  advisable. 

By  the  terms  of  this  act  the  station  secures  an  annual  appropriation  of 
$15,000,  which  must  be  kept  distinct  from  the  income  of  the  College.  The 
Station  is  now  in  possession  of  $11,250  of  this  amount  for  the  present 
fiscal  year. 

The  act  of  1890,  called  the  “Morrill  Act,”  provides  for  the  more  com- 
plete endowment  and  support  of  the  College  for  the  benefit  of  agriculture 
and  mechanic  arts.  The  annuity  secured  by  this  act  can  be  applied  only 
to  instruction  in  agriculture,  the  mechanic  arts,  the  English  language,  the 
various  branches  of  mathematics,  physical,  natural  and  economic  science, 
and  to  the  facilities  for  such  instruction. 

Beginning  with  the  present  fiscal  year,  and  by  the  provisions  of  the 
Morrill  act,  in  addition  to  the  endowments  as  provided  for  by  the  acts 
heretofore  mentioned,  the  College  will  receive  $15,000  annually,  which 
amount  is  to  be  increased  each  year  by  $1,000  until  this  annual  appropria- 
tion reaches  $25,000,  at  which  amount  it  remains  at  the  pleasure  of 
congress. 


Bulletin  3.— February,  189 2. 


43 


At  present  we  have  received  none  of  the  funds  provided  for  by  the 
Morrill  act,  but  we  have  complied  with  the  requirements  of  the  law,  and 
we  have  every  reason  to  believe  that  our  College  will  receive  the  appro- 
priation for  its  first  fiscal  year  on  or  before  the  first  day  of  next  July. 

DISCUSSION. 

Mr.  McCroskey  : What  buildings  has  the  College  ? 

Pres.  Lilley  : At  present  there  is  one  brick  building  that 
meets  our  present  needs  quite  well,  and  the  board  of  regents  have 
recently  let  the  contracts  for  building  and  equipping  a dormi- 
tory, the  dimensions  of  which  are  57  feet  by  100  feet  and  three 
stories  high.  This  building  will  be  heated  by  steam  and  lighted 
by  electricity.  It  is  the  further  intention  of  the  board  to  let 
contracts  for  the  erection  of  a boiler  and  engine  house,  farm 
house,  and  barn  and  plant  houses;  also  shops  in  which  our  stu- 
dents will  receive  instruction  in  wood  and  iron  work.  All  of 
these  buildings  will  be  completed  and  thoroughly  equipped  dur- 
ing the  summer  months. 


THE  SUGAR  BEET. 

C.  A.  GWINN. 

When  Napoleon  Bonaparte  was  having  his  little  difficulty  with  Eng- 
land, he  conceived  the  idea  of  manufacturing  sugar  from  beets,  that  he 
might  exclude  the  British  West  India  sugar  from  France.  The  idea  was 
new,  and,  as  innovations  of  all  kinds  have  ever  been  from  the  time  Noah 
set  about  to  build  his  ark,  was  ridiculed  by  the  self-complacent  wise- 
acres of  the  land.  The  Puck  and  * Judge  periodicals  of  that  day  cari- 
catured the  emperor.  He  was  represented  as  seated  at  his  breakfast  in 
the  act  of  squeezing  a huge  beet  into  his  coffee.  Near  by  sat  his  infant 
son,  industriously  chewing  at  a beet  root.  The  nurse  kept  telling  him  to 
“Suck it,  dear;  suck  it.  Your  father  says  it’s  sugar.” 

But  Napoleon  proved  his  indifference  to  these  sarcasms  by  offering  a 
bounty  on  sugar  produced  from  beets  within  his  empire.  From  this 
period  dates  the  beginning  of  the  industry,  of  which  Napoleon  may 
properly  be  called  the  father. 

In  the  United  States  the  production  of  sugar  from  beets  is  an  infant 
industry,  and  of  its  vast  extent  and  importance  in  the  eastern  hemisphere 
little  is  generally  known.  It  will  be  a surprise  to  many  to  learn  that  in 
the  world’s  production  for  the  past  five  years  the  amount  of  beet  sugar 


44 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


produced  exceeds  that  of  cane  by  more  than  1,000, -000  tons.  France  and 
Germany  are  the  chief  producers  of  this  commodity.  The  cultivation  of 
the  sugar  beet  seems  to  have  become  more  popular  in  these  old  countries 
than  in  this,  for  several  reasons.  Our  proximity  to  the  sugar  .cane 
districts  has  rendered  it  less  imperative  than  with  them.  There  the  indi- 
vidual farmer  controls  but  a few  acres,  which  it  is  necessary  to  make 
yield  the  greatest  possible  returns.  The  American  farmer  seems  to  have 
a rapacious  desire  to  scratch  over  as  many  acres  as  possible,  and  seems 
to  regard  any  suggestions  of  gardening  as  the  circus  elephant  might  be 
supposed  to  feel  when  required  to  pick  up  pins  for  the  amusement  of  the 
crowd.  Cultivation  as  well  as  seeds  may  be  spread  out  too  thinly.  It  is 
evident  that  the  economical  French  farmers  find  sugar  beets  their  most 
profitable  crop,  or  they  would  not  grow  them.  Now,  if  it  pays  them  it 
ought  to  pay  us  two-fold.  They  have  to  pay  a government  tax  on  all 
beets  raised;  we  are  offered  a liberal  bounty  on  every  pound  of  sugar 
produced.  They  often  expend  from  $20  to  $50  per  acre  for  fertilizers; 
nature  gave  the  Palouse  country  farmers  a garden  of  inexhaustible  fer- 
tility. We  can  add  the  cost  of  the  Frenchmen’s  fertilizers  to  our  profits. 

If  there  is  a more  profitable  crop  than  wheat  we  want  to  know  it. 
Let  us  consider  the  crop  under  discussion  from  this  standpoint.  Sugar 
beets  yield  at  the  rate  of  from  twenty  to  thirty  tons  per  acre.  The 
value  is  determined  by  the  percentage  of  sugar  contained,  $5  per  ton 
being  a fair  average.  At  this  rate  we  have  a return  of  from  $100  to  $150 
per  acre.  That  this  is  not  an  exaggerated  estimate  is  shown  by  the  report 
of  the  California  sugar  beet  producers  for  last  season.  The}’'  report 
that  their  crop  has  netted  them  $75  per  acre  clear  of  every  expense. 
What  possibilities  this  industry  opens  up  for  this  country  ! Were  we  to 
turn  our  attention  to  raising  sugar  beets,  forty  acres  would  require  as 
much  work  and  yield  as  much  profit  as  a quarter  section  does  now.  And 
if  it  yield  as  much  profit  why  should  it  not  be  worth  as  much  ? Let  us 
picture  the  country  around  Garfield  wholly  engaged  in  producing  sugar 
beets.  Instead  of  one  family  to  the  quarter  section  there  are  four.  In- 
stead of  land  being  worth  $25  an  acre  it  is  worth  $100.  Instead  of  walking 
a half  mile  on  a wet  day  to  visit  a neighbor  and  talk  over  crops,  Farmers’ 
Alliance  and  the  third  party  movement,  it  is  only  forty  rods.  The  whole 
country  would  be  like  a thinly  settled  city.  Schools  and  churches  would 
multiply,  and  the  locality  would  become  notoriously  wealthy,  offering 
advantages  for  culture  and  education  that  we  do  not  now  possess. 

The  successful  production  of  sugar  cane  belongs  exclusively  to  the 
warm  climate  of  the  south.  The  sugar  beet  grows  to  perfection  onl}T  in 
northern  latitudes.  To  be  profitable  for  manufacturing  purposes  the 
beet  should  contain  at  least  twelve  per  cent,  of  sugar,  according  to  the 
agricultural  department  reports.  In  some  localities  the  vegetable  may 
flourish  and  yet  lack  the  essential  property.  It  requires  peculiar  climatic 
conditions  and  soil.  It  requires  cool  summers.  Excessively  warm 
weather  saps  the  sugar-making  element  from  the  plant.  And  it  requires 
a deep,  fertile  loam.  In  short,  a description  of  the  soil  and  climate  best 
adapted  to  the  production  of  the  sugar  beet  is  an  accurate  description  of 


Bulletin  3. — February , 189%. 


45 


the  soil  and  climate  of  the  Palouse  country.  Tests  made  from  beets  grown 
in  Eastern  Washington  go  to  prove  that  this  is  the  case.  Of  three  differ- 
ent lots  sent  to  the  agricultural  department  in  1890,  the  report  showed  a 
percentage  of  sugar  of  12.60,  14.96  and  15.37,  respectively.  In  the  re- 
port for  1891  Washington  stands  at  the  head  of  the  list,  the  percentage 
being  14.75.  Oregon  comes  next,  but  nearly  one  per  cent,  lower,  showing 
that  while  the  northwest  excels,  the  Palouse  country  is  as  a bright  spot 
on  the  sun’s  disc. 

The  agricultural  department  defines  the  sugar  beet  territory  in  the 
United  States  as  a belt  about  200  miles  in  width,  commencing  on  the  At- 
lantic coast  at  New  York  and  following  the  course  of  the  isothermal  lines 
to  the  Pacific  coast.  Here  is  another  evidence  in  our  favor  — the  isother- 
mal line  that  passes  through  New  York,  after  much  meandering,  crosses 
Eastern  Washington. 

There  seems  to  be  but  one  impediment  to  the  Palouse  farmer  immedi- 
ately launching  into  a new  and  lucrative  employment.  The  factory  nec- 
essary to  convert  the  sugar  beets  into  sugar  is  costly.  A plant  for  this 
purpose  is  estimated  to  cost  from  $75,000  to  $200,000.  But  it  will  only  be 
necessary  to  bring  to  the  notice  of  capitalists  and  sugar  manufacturers 
the  superior  quality  of  the  Washington  grown  beet,  and  factories  will 
come.  It  is  only  a matter  of  time.  I will  assume  the  role  of  prophet  and 
predict  that  the  present  generation  will  see  the  Palouse  country  sown  to 
beets.  When  the  land  now  necessary  to  feed  and  clothe  one  person  will 
better  feed  and  clothe  ten,  and  the  imperfect  pen-picture  presented  to  you 
in  this  sketch  will  be  verified.  When  the  midday  sun  shall  bestow  its  all 
too  lavish  blessing  upon  the  upturned  and  perspiring  backs  of  thousands 
of  beet  growers,  and  the  autumnal  echoes  shall  resound  to  the  ominous 
thud  of  the  mammoth  sugar  beet  as  it  alights  in  the  wagon  that  is  to  con- 
vey it  to  the  factory. 

DISCUSSION. 

Mr.  Lake:  In  the  paper  just  read  we  have  .heard  of  mam- 
moth sugar  beets.  I would  like  to  ask  Mr.  Gwinn  how  large 
such  beets  would  be  ? 

Mr.  Gwinn:  Not  very  large,  for  the  sugar  beet  is  a small  root 
compared  with  rutabagas  and  m angel- wurzels. 

Mr.  Lake:  Is  it  not  generally  advised  that  the  sugar  beet  be 
grown  only  to  an  average  size,  for  best  results  ? 

Mr.  Gwinn:  Yes.  Beets  weighing  about  two  pounds  give 
best  returns. 

Mr.  McCroskey:  From  what  part  of  Eastern  Washington 
were  the  beets  sent  to  the  national  department  of  agriculture  ? 

Mr.  Gwinn:  Two  lots  were  sent  from  Oakesdale  and  one  from 
Medical  Lake. 


46 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


Mk.  Scobey:  What  varieties  gave  the  results  referred  to? 

Mr.  Gwinn:  No  particular  varieties  stated.  There  are  very 
many  varieties  under  cultivation,  but  under  mere  test  culture, 
as  such  cases  as  the  above,  the  testers  are  not  likely  to  put  much 
stress  on  the  variety.  One  important  point  was  overlooked  in 
the  paper,  and  that  is  with  reference  to  seed-growing.  It  takes 
about  one-fourth  as  much  acreage  to  produce  the  seed  for  the 
subsequent  crop  as  is  under  cultivation  for  sugar  each  }^ear. 

Mr.  Scobey:  In  the  figures  just  given  us  there  is  nearly  three 
per  cent,  difference  in'  the  'Sugar  percentage.  This  would  seem 
to  indicate  varietal  or  soil  differences  of  no  little  significance, 
for  such  a wide  variation  would  make  all  the  difference  in  profit 
and  loss.  Is  it  not  probable  that  the  same  variety  may  be 
equally  profitable  on  all  our  soils  ? 

Mr.  Gwinn:  Yes;  I think  when  the  subject  of  beet  culture 
comes  to  be  seriously  considered  by  our  soil-tillers,  varieties  will 
be  one  of  the  first  detail  problems  to  be  settled. 

President  Lille y : What  per  cent,  is  considered  profitable  ? 

Mr.  Gwinn:  Twelve  per  cent.  But,  although  some  states 
give  even  a higher  percentage  than  this,  beet-culture  in  them  is 
not  considered  profitable,  as  the  crop  one  year  with  another  is  not 
reliable.  At  present  we  need  to  have  a great  many  reliable  an- 
alyses made  of  beets  from  the  various  localities,  after  which  very 
definite  information  will  be  in  our  possession  and  we  may  then 
engage  in  the  cultivation  of  this  crop  with  the  probable  profit 
well  understood. 

President  Lilley:  I think  I may  safely  say  that  the  College 
will  be  thoroughly  equipped  to  do  work  of  this  nature  for  you 
this  year  and  all  subsequent  years.  This  is  a question  of  great 
importance  to  our  state,  and  the  College  will  endeavor  to  be 
ready  at  all  times  to  render  aid  in  solving  such  questions  as  our 
soil-tillers  may  refer  to  it. 

Mr.  Gwinn:  Soil  and  climate  alike  affect  the  rate  per  cent,  of 
sugar  in  beets.  There  are  poor  beet  soils  as  well  as  poor  wheat 
soils.  The  highest  percentage  given,  so  far  as  I have  been  able 


Bulletin  3. — February , 1893. 


47 


to  learn,  is  from  Colorado  for  1889,  when  beets  from  that  state 
gave  a return  of  nineteen  per  cent. 

Mr.  McCroskey:  The  leading  beet  sugar  section  of  California 
gives  a return  of  fourteen  per  cent.  In  this  section  the  growers 
find  that  certain  soils  will  not  give  profitable  returns.  The  best 
soils  there  are  the  same  as  ours,  and  it  would  seem  that  all  is  in 
our  favor  in  the  cultivation  of  this  crop. 


FARM  DAIRYING. 

J.  o’b.  scobey. 

Very  few  people  in  this  or  any  other  state  are  farming  exclusively 
for  pleasure;  nor  are  they  engaged  in  that  healthful  occupation  entirely 
for  “hygienic  reasons.”  It  is  principally  a question  of  profit.  To  be 
sure,  we  all  find  pleasure  in  the  work  of  the  field,  the  growth  of  the  crop, 
the  care  of  the  dumb  yet  intelligent  animal,  the  culture  and  the  harvest 
of  the  fruit.  But  that  pleasure  is  the  pleasure  that  one  feels  in  carrying 
out  the  work  of  his  own  selection.  It  is  the  pleasure  of  a feeling  of  duty 
done  and  of  ambition  gratified.  The  ultimate  purpose  of  our  work  is  to 
derive  the  profit  which  will  enable  us  to  enjoy  the  comforts  and  priv- 
ileges of  home,  of  society  and.of  government.  We  seek  that  remuneration 
for  our  toil  that  will  eventually  render  us  comfortable  and  temporally 
happy. 

With  the  intelligent,  thinking,  studying  agriculturist,  such  as  we  are 
meeting  with  in  this  institute  work,  it  is  not  a question  of  amount  of 
profit  that  may  be  realized  this  year,  irrespective  of  the  possibility  of 
future  returns,  but  his  farming  is  a question  of  what  is  the  best  policy  to 
pursue  this  year,  and  which  shall  at  the  same  time  be  consistent  with  the 
hope  of  production  next  season  as  well  as  for  many  years  to  come. 

There  is  no  field  of  labor,  professional  or  otherwise,  where  intelligence 
counts  for  more  than  it  does  on  the  farm.  The  old  notion  that  “anybody 
can  run  a farm”  is  all  right  if  that  “anybody”  proceeds  to  his  work  with 
intelligence.  If  he  does  not.  he  may  be  the  best  educated  and  brightest 
man  in  the  world  and  he  will  fail.  It  requires  more  intelligence  to  farm 
properly,  that  is,  the  employment  of  more  intelligent  judgment,  than  it 
does  to  build  a house,  edit  a newspaper,  or  try  a lawsuit.  “Hap-hazard” 
farming  never  did,  does  not  now  nor  ever  will  return  a profit.  There- 
fore, I say,  the  intelligent  farmer,  and  consequently  the  best  farmer, 
will  go  about  his  work  with  care  and  circumspection,  inquiring  what  is 
best  to  do,  not  for  a return  of  profit  this  year,  but  for  this  year  in  con- 
nection with  next  and  succeeding  years.  Now,  if  I knew  who  is  the  poor- 
est farmer  in  Washington,  and  by  poorest  I mean  the  least  intelligent, 


48 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station . 


the  one  who  reads  little  and  thinks  less  ( and  I have  no  doubt  he  would 
likewise  be  the  poorest  in  purse),  if  I could  run  across  that  man  I would 
ask  him  if  there  is  any  intelligence  displayed  in  raising  wheat  year  after 
year,  continually  sapping  the  life  and  vitality  of  the  soil,  and  at  the  same 
time  giving  nothing  back.  He  must  answer  me  in  the  negative.  I would 
ask  him  if  there  is  much  wisdom  manifest  by  a general  community  of 
farmers  who  will  permit  all  the  best  butter  buyers  of  their  home  market 
to  import  all  their  butter  from  Iowa,  Wisconsin  and  Illinois,  and  pay 
forty  cents  per  pound  for  it.  If  he  could  not  answer  that  question,  then 
I would  be  willing  to  accept  the  answer  of  this  more  intelligent  assem- 
blage. Many  of  the  largest  and  best  butter  buyers  of  this  country,  to  my 
certain  knowledge,  are  buying  butter  from  the  states  I have  named  at 
the  price  mentioned.  Now,,  stop  and  figure  on  that  a moment.  A rea- 
sonably good  dairy  cow  will  produce,  with  proper  feed  and  proper  care, 
300  pounds  of  butter  in  one  year.  That  butter  at  forty  cents  per  pound 
will  yield  $120.  Now,  shrink  your  price  for  safety  to  thirty  cents  per 
pound  and  a 300-pound  producing  cow  will  yield  a gross  income  of  $90 
per  year.  That  is  in  butter,  with  the  skim  milk  left,  which  can  cer- 
tainly be  utilized  to  make  the  amount  up  to  $100.  If,  then,  we  are  farm- 
ing for  profit,  and  not  for  pleasure,  and  if  we  desire  to  exercise  a 
reasonable  intelligence  as  to  what  is  best  for  to-day  and  for  the  future,  is 
it  not  time  to  commence  to  combine  dairying  with  other  branches  of 
farm  industry?  Wheat  alone  will  as  surely  exhaust  the  soil  of  Eastern 
Washington  as  we  continue  to  raise  it,  unless  we  return  to  the  earth  the 
elements  that  the  growing  grain  extract  from  it.  This  is  a new  and  rich 
country,  and  to  many  the  truth  of-  this  proposition  does  not  seem  possible. 
But  true  it  is.  Therefore,  those  who  have  homes  on  these  fertile  prairies 
and  who  are  building  for  the  future,  should  be  wise  before  it  is  too  late 
to  use  wisdom. 

I desire  it  to  be  understood  that  I am  addressing  my  remarks  to  the 
home-builder — the  man  and  the  woman  who  are  here  to  stay,  and  who  are 
building  for  themselves  and  their  children.  The  “scalper”  will  not  be 
interested  in  this  subject.  The  scalper  is  a man  who  is  engaged  in  getting 
all  there  is  in  it  to-day,  and  who  will  pull  up  stakes  and  be  gone  to-mor- 
row. He  has  little  care  for  the  good  of  the  community,  or  of  the  coun- 
try. But  you  who  are  building  up  beautiful  homes  and  trying  to  lay  up 
profit  for  the  future  cannot  afford  to  “scalp”  the  land,  or  fail  to  look 
carefully  and  intelligently  in  the  direction  of  what  is  to  come. 

There  is  nothing  that  will  be  so  important  a factor  in  the  future  in 
adding  profit  to  individual  farming  or  in  enriching  this  agricultural  re- 
gion, as  dairying.  The  cow  takes  nourishment  from  the  soil,  but  she 
turns  in  her  profit  to  her  owner,  and  gives  back  to  the  earth  much  of  the 
richness  which  she  absorbed. 

It  is  not  intelligent  farming  to  wait  until  it  no  longer  pays  to  raise 
wheat,  or  until  it  will  not  grow,  before  we  begin  dairy  operations.  We 
will  then  be  too  poor  to  commence.  The  time  to  begin  is  now,  when  the 
richness  of  the  soil  for  wheat  culture  gives  us  a surplus  to  start  in  the 
dairy. 


Bulletin  3. — February , 1893. 


49 


I don’t  want  to  see  the  wheat  fields  of  this  country  forsaken.  Bread 
is  just  as  essential  as  butter.  It  is  largely  by  reason  of  the  former  that 
we  use  the  latter. 

Now,  two  things  are  essential  before  farm  dairying  can  be  made  a 
success: 

First:  It  is  necessary  to  definitely  determine  that  we  shall  devote  a 
fair  part  of  our  farm  and  of  our  time  to  this  branch  of  agriculture. 

Second:  It  is  necessary  to  make  suitable  preparation. 

The  first  proposition  is  a self-evident  one.  A success  cannot  be  made 
of  any  undertaking  unless  it  is  entered  into  with  spirit  and  enthusiasm. 
Half-heartedness  never  pays.  I want  to  see  the  home-builders  of  this 
state  awake  to  the  realization  of  the  importance  of  this  matter  of  dairy- 
ing, and  then  I want  to  see  it  entered  into  with  a determination  to  make 
it  stand  shoulder  to  shoulder  with  the  wheat  industry.  When  the  facts 
in  regard  to  its  importance  and  profit  are  fully  understood  the  first 
desideratum  will  have  been  attained. 

The  question  of  making  a suitable  preparation  is  an  important  one. 

To  realize  a profit  from  dairying  we  must  have  profitable  dairy  cows, 
and  some  conveniences  for  proper  butter  making.  The  most  essential, 
however,  is  the  right  kind  of  stock.  There  is  many  a farmer  in  this 
country  who  is  milking  cows  and  making  his  own  butter,  that  is  the 
butter  which  his  family  consumes.  He  feels  quite  self-satisfied  that  he 
is  doing  that.  Now,  I will  guarantee  that  if  you  will  produce  me  a fair 
sample  of  all  the  milk  from  these  cows,  I will  prove  that  three-fifths  of 
these  farmers  would  save  money  by  selling  the  cows  and  buying  the 
forty-cent  Iowa  butter. 

At  the  same  time  a fair  percentage  of  our  common  cows  will  do 
admirably  for  the  dairy. 

One  of  the  first  things,  then,  to  do,  is  to  separate  our  cows  and  keep 
only  the  profitable  ones. 

This  work  can  be  done  at  once.  It  may  be  begun  this  season  as  well 
as  next.  And  while  we  are  determining  which  are  the  profitable  cows, 
we  can,  by  properly  kept  records,  determine  how  much  it  requires  to 
keep  a cow  a year.  When  we  know  these  two  facts,  the  cost  of  a par- 
ticular cow’s  keep  and  the  amount  of  her  income,  we  will  know  at  once 
whether  to  milk  her  or  fat  her.  In  this  way  we  can,  in  a season  or  two 
at  most,  make  our  selection  from  the  stock  on  hand,  and  then,  by  the 
infusion  of  pure  dairy  blood  into  our  herds,  we  will  soon  realize  results 
that  will  cast  a shadow  of  poverty  over  wheat  raising. 

DISCUSSION. 

E.  B.  Williams:  Does  it  take  an  intelligent  man  to  under- 
stand  the  professor’s  statement  about  a cow’s  product  being 
300  pounds,  and  this  selling  at  40  cents  per  pound  the  year 
round  ? 

Mr.  Scobey:  Yes;  it  does  take  an  intelligent  man,  but  I am 


50 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station . 


not  saying  how  much  intelligence  he  must  possess.  The  point 
I wanted  to  make,  however,  is  this:  It  is  poor  policy  to  keep 
on  raising  wheat  exclusively  in  this  section  till  the  land  is  ex- 
hausted and  it  becomes  necessary  to  turn  to  the  cow  and  other 
stock  for  immediate  help.  We  ought  to  bring  the  cow  in  for 
work  now. 

Dr.  Simpson:  What  is  the  best  breed  for  the  dairy  ? 

Mr.  Scobey:  There  is  a difference  of  opinion.  I prefer  the 
Jersey,  but  some  prefer  Holsteins  and  other  strictly  dairy  breeds, 
and  others  heavier  breeds,  because  they  make  a good  beef  carcass 
when  they  become  too  old  to  milk.  1 do  not  believe  in  the 
“general  purpose”  cow. 

Mr.  Watson:  What  about  the  pasturage?  Those  who  have 
been  here  for  some  years  know  that  the  bunch  grass  is  rapidly 
disappearing,  and  that  as  a pasture  grass  for  milk  it  is  poor  at 
best.  What  can  we  substitute  for  this  ? 

Mr.  Scobey:  I can’t  say,  but  in  our  work  at  the  College  we 
propose  to  thoroughly  test  this  grass  question.  We  propose  to 
find  out,  if  possible,  if  there  is  not  some  variety  of  grass  or 
other  forage  plant  that  will  furnish  good  and  substantial  pas- 
turage for  this  section,  especially  through  the  dry  season. 

Mr.  Williams:  Can  we  make  and  keep  silage  here? 

Mr.  Scobey:  Why  not?  We  can  grow  corn,  and  certainly 
there  is  nothing  in  the  climate  that  would  prevent  silage  from 
keeping  if  properly  put  into  the  silo. 

Mr.  Watson:  There  are  some  men  in  this  region  that  have 
tried  it  and  say  no  to  these  queries.  I have  used  cut  hay  and 
roots,  and  this,  in  a crude  way,  has  enabled  me  to  make  the 
cow  a profitable  animal. 

Mr.  Scobey:  I can  only  think  of  one  possible  trouble  with 
the  trials  already  made  with  silage,  and  that  is  that  the  material 
was  put  into  the  silo  in  a too  wet  condition.  This  last  remark 
of  Mr.  Watson’s  makes  it  evident  to  me  that  we  may  make 
•dairying  profitable  here. 


51 


Bulletin  3. — February , 1893. 

The  noon  hour  having  arrived,  an  adjournment  was  taken 
till  2 o’clock,  at  which  time  the  chairman  announced  that  the 
dairy  question  was  still  open  for  discussion. 

Mr.  Lake:  Has  any  one  here  had  any  experience  with  the 
clovers  ? 

Mr.  Burns:  I have  sowed  red  clover,  alone  and  with  tim- 
othy. I sowed  it  on  all  slopes  and  all  soils,  and  must  pro- 
nounce it  a failure.  I had  one  fair  crop,  the  second  one,  but 
soon  after  this  was  taken  off  I could  go  over  the  field  where  it 
was  sown  alone  and  take  the  crowns  all  up  without  breaking 
the  roots.  These  seemed  to  be  eaten  off  a few  inches  below 
the  surface,  the  plants  all  dying  finally.  Neither  can  I pro- 
nounce timothy  a success.  With  me  it  has  given  one  good  crop 
and  then  failed.  These  crops  seem  to  suffer  because  we  have 
no  late  spring  rains  here.  I find  on  my  place  a few  roots  or 
crowns  of  clover  doing  well,  but  they  are  scattered  and  in  very 
favorable  localities. 

A.  J.  Williams:  Alfalfa  has  done  fairly  well  with  me. 
Alsike  did  well  for  two  years,  and  then  seemed  to  run  out. 
Sanfoin  I have  tried,  but  must  say  it  is  no  good  here. 

Mr.  Lake:  Has  anyone  tried  the  oat,  rye  or  blue  grasses? 

Mr.  Burns:  I have  tried  the  rye  grasses,  both  American  and 
English,  but  had  only  the  most  meager  returns  from  them. 

President  Lilley:  Has  anyone  tried  Bussian  clover? 

E.  B.  Williams:  One  acre  of  rye  and  wild  oats  mixed  will 
keep  a horse  or  cow  through  the  pasturing  season. 

Mr.  Burns:  I have  tried  most  everything,  and  am  satisfied 
that  there  is  no  combination  of  forage  plants  one  or  two  acres 
of  which  will  keep  a cow  the  whole  year  through.  It  takes 
about  five  acres  at  best. 

Mr.  Scobey:  Well,  even  at  this  rate,  is  not  the  cow  as 
profitable  as  wheat  ? 


52 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


THE  PATHOLOGY,  CAUSES  AND  TREATMENT  OF  BONE  SPAVIN. 

DR.  MUNN. 

This  is  a disease  of  the  hock  joint,  and  is  one  of  the  more  common 
causes  of  lameness  in  the  posterior  extremities. 

Spavins  are  nearly  always  situated  on  the  inner  side  and  toward  the 
front  of  the  joint.  A bone  spavin  is  an  exostosis  or  bony  tumor,  situated 
at  the  inner  and  lower  portion  of  the  joint,  and  is  caused  by  an  inflam- 
mation of  some  of  the  smaller  bones  of  the  joint.  The  articular  surfaces 
of  the  bones  involved  become  ulcerated,  an  exudation  is  thrown  out, 
which  gradually  ossifies,  and  in  the  majority  of  cases  cements  two  or 
more  of  the  bones  together.  The  causes  of  bone  spavin  are  numerous; 
many  horses  inherit  it  through  a faulty  conformation  of  the  joint,  and 
also  a poor  quality  of  bone.  There  are  also  families  with  well  formed 
hocks,  with  the  bony  structure  apparently  of  good  quality,  which  show, 
generation  after  generation,  a tendency  to  spavins,  together  with  other 
diseases  of  thq  bones. 

The  exciting  causes  are  sprains  and  concussions  of  many  kinds.  The 
starting  of  heavy  loads  on  slippery,  irregular  paving  or  icy  roads,  the 
hind  feet  slipping  suddenly,  producing  a strain  upon  the  ligaments  which 
bind  the  bones  of  the  hock  together,  and  a concussion  of  the  bones  them- 
selves; shoes  with  high  calks,  especially  when  the  heel  calks  are  unusu- 
ally high,  altering  the  direction  of  the  leg  and  producing  a concussion  of 
the  bones  at  every  step. 

The  lameness  caused  by  the  formation  of  a spavin  may  at  first  be 
slight,  a little  hitch  of  the  diseased  leg  at  starting,  or  lameness  for  a few 
steps  when  first  taken  out  of  the  stable,  or,  even  before  any  lameness  is 
shown,  there  may  be  noticed  a tendency  to  rest  one  leg  more  than  the 
other,  extending  the  foot,  the  toe  touching  the  ground,  with  the  heel 
raised.  As  the  disease  progresses,  the  lameness,  instead  of  disappearing 
after  a few  steps  have  been  taken,  will  continue  for  some  time  until  the 
animal  has  become  warm  by  exercise,  and  reappearing  after  every  rest, 
until  finally  lameness  becomes  continuous  while  the  horse  is  in  action, 
and  considerable  pain  is  shown  while  he  is  at  rest.  From  lack  of  exer- 
cise the  muscles  on  the  affected  side  atrophy  or  shrink,  and  in  most  cases 
a bony  swelling  appears  on  the  internal  face  of  the  affected  joint,  accom- 
panied by  more  or  less  heat. 

There  are  cases  where  the  lameness  is  excessive  and  yet  the  swelling 
cannot  be  detected,  and  an  occasional  case  with  a bony  growth  of  con- 
siderable size  without  lameness  or  any  apparent  increase  of  temperature 
during  the  process  of  its  formation,  the  size  of  the  tumor  appearing  to 
have  but  little  influence  over  the  symptoms  of  lameness. 

In  making  a prognosis  regarding  the  chances  of  removing  the  lame- 
ness in  a case  of  spavin,  there  are  many  things  to  be  considered. 


Bulletin  3. — February , 1892. 


53 


When’we  remember  that  the  hock  joint  is  similar  to  the  ankle  joint  of 
man  and  is  made  up  of  seven  small  bones,  that  the  upper  bones  are  the 
ones  which  take  part  in  the  action  pf  the  true  hock  joint,  while  the  lower 
ones  have  but  a limited  gliding  motion,  we  can  easily  understand  that 
the  nearer  the  spavin  is  located  to  the  bones  which  take  part  in  the  true 
action  of  the  joint,  the  greater  will  be  the  pain  and  inconvenience  when 
the  joint  is  in  motion.  If,  as  is  often  the  case,  the  inflammation  at  first 
set  up  has  gone  so  far  before  the  cause  of  the  lameness  has  been  correctly 
diagnosed  that  structural  changes  have  taken  place  in  the  bones  and  lig- 
aments of  the  joint,  and  an  exudation  has  been  thrown  out  between  the 
bones,  and  upon  their  surfaces,  then  we  should  attempt  by  the  aid  of 
counter  irritants  to  stimulate  that  exudation  to  form  a band  from  one 
diseased  bone  to  another,  which  by  the  process  of  ossification  binds  them 
into  one  solid  bone.  This  renders  the  diseased  portion  of  the  joint  free 
from  motion,  and  the  lameness  ceases.  If,  however,  the  seat  of  the  in- 
flammation is  higher  up  on  the  joint,  and  the  bony  growth  be  implicated 
in  the  action  of  the  true  hock  joint,  it  is  obvious  that  we  have  an  almost 
hopeless  case  to  deal  with.  Another  point  for  consideration  is  the  age  of 
the  animal.  It  is  well  known  that  the  spavin  lameness  of  old  horses  is 
much  more  difficult  to  remove  than  when  affecting  young  or  middle-aged 
horses.  The  reason  is  that  nature’s  repairative  process  progresses  but 
feebly  in  the  aged,  but  little  exudation  is  thrown  out,  and  the  process  of 
ulceration  continues,  while  in  the  vigorous  middle-aged  or  young  horse 
the  process  of  repair  is  vigorous,  and  in  a large  percentage  of  such  cases, 
given  sufficient  rest  and  proper  treatment,  enough  exudation  will  be  pro- 
duced, which,  when  ossified,  will  cause  anchylosis,  or  immobolity  of  the 
diseased  portion  of  the  joint,  provided  it  occurs  in  a part  of  the  joint 
where  motion  is  limited  and  will  allow  the  affected  bones  to  be  cemented 
together. 

Blisters  of  various  kinds,  and  the  actual  cautery  are  the  counter  irri- 
tants mostly  used  to  stimulate  the  process  of  exudation  and  ossification. 
Rest  is  imperative,  as  it  is  very  evident  when  we  take  into  consideration 
the  nature  of  the  disease,  and  the  process  or  repair  we  attempt  to  estab- 
lish by  our  treatment,  that  but  little  can  be  accomplished  if  the  animal 
is  kept  at  work. 

DISCUSSION. 

Mr.  Courtright:  Can  a spavin  be  cured  and  the  tumor  re- 
moved ? 

Dr.  Munn:  No,  although  by  proper  treatment  it  may  be  much 
reduced. 

Dr.  Simpson:  What  do  you  think  of  Kendall’s  spavin  cure? 
Dr.  Munn:  It  is  probably  as  good  as  any  counter  irritant  of 
that  class.  It  must  be  remembered  that  when  treated  for  spavin 
horses  should  be  given  a good  long  rest. 

—2 


54 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


Dr.  Simpson:  My  stock  has  been  periodically  troubled  during 
the  last  three  or  four  years  with  a lameness  that  at  times  is  very 
annoying,  but  has  not  yet  proved  in  anywise  serious.  It  spreads 
from  one  animal  to  another,  and  may  last  several  or  only  a few 
days. 


WHEAT  GROWING. 


R.  C.  M’CROSKEY. 


The  Palouse  country  is  perhaps  the  hest  wheat  belt  in  America,  the 
climate  and  soil  conspiring  to  reward  man’s  efforts  in  producing  the 
cereals,  with  the  most  bountiful  and  uniform  harvests.  Yet  there  is  no 
country  with  which  I have  been  acquainted  where  superior  cultivation 
and  intelligent  observation  count  for  so  much  as  here.  It  behooves  us, 
therefore,  to  carefully  study  the  conditions  that  surround  us,  and  to  so 
conduct  our  operations  that  we  can  make  our  lands  produce  the  most 
possible  in  a given  period,  and  still  leave  them  in  a condition  for  a repeti- 
tion of  the  same  yield  for  the  next  succeeding  period. 

Wild  oats,  cockle  and  pig-weed,  all  of  which  we  have  to  contend  against 
unremittingly,  and  frequently  unsuccessfully,  diminish  materially  the 
yield  of  wheat  by  their  presence,  and  exhaust  the  fertility  of  the  soil 
quite  as  much  as  d'oes  the  same  growth  of  wheat.  Their  presence,  there- 
fore, indicates  a lower  yield  of  grain  and  the  exhaustion  of  the  soil  with- 
out corresponding  benefit  therefor.  The  pig-weed  seems  to  be  indigenous 
to  our  soil,  and  will  volunteer  in  land  that  has  been  cultivated  to  wheat 
for  many  consecutive  years  or  until  the  wheat  producing  quality  of  the 
soil  has  been  partialty  exhausted.  Wild  oats  and  cockle  flourish  in  land 
that  has  been  so  exhausted.  The  only  remedy  that  will  correct  these 
evils,  Itnd  will  cause  whatever  strength  is  taken  from  the  soil  to  go  into 
the  owner’s  pocket,  is  fallowing  the  land  every  other  year  after  the  first 
three  or  four  crops  have  been  taken  from  it.  By  fallowing  property,  not 
only  is  the  “foul  stuff”  eradicated,  but  the  clods  and  general  surface  of 
the  soil  are  fertilized  by  being  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  sun’s  light  and 
the  atmosphere.  These  fertilized  portions  are  subsequently  turned  under 
and  other  portions  are  turned  to  the  surface  to  undergo  the  same  process 
of  fertilization.  In  addition  to  these  advantages  there  is  a still  greater 
realized  in  virtually  having  two  years’  rainfall  to  produce  our  crop. 

The  amount  of  moisture  that  passes  from  the  earth  by  the  process  of 
evaporation,  is  very  slight  as  compared  with  the  quantity  that  is  taken 
from  it,  both  by  evaporation  and  the  production  of  a crop.  This  can  be 
easity  demonstrated  to  any  one’s  satisfaction  by  digging  down  eight  or 
ten  feet  in  a wheat  field  just  after  a crop  has  been  taken  off,  and  also 
digging  down  the  same  depth  in  a youfig  orchard,  the  land  of  which  has 


Bulletin  S. — February , 1892. 


55 


been  kept  clean  and  well  stirred  and  on  which  no  crop  was  produced. 
In  the  wheat  field  the  earth  will  be  found  to  be  almost  entirely  sapped  of 
its  moisture,  while  in  the  orchard  it  will  be  found  moist  to  a great  depth. 
The  fine  fibrous  roots  of  the  wheat  penetrate,  so  the  books  tell  us,  six- 
teen feet  below  the  surface.  This  appears  incredible,  but  from  personal 
observation  I know  they  descend  in  hunt  of  sustenance  and  moisture 
from  eight  to  twelve  feet.  Hence,  to  produce  a large  crop,  the  necessity 
of  having  the  ground  wet  down  deep,  or  of  having  continuous  rains 
during  the  spring  and  early  part  of  the  summer.  The  latter  condition 
is  not  to  be  relied  upon.  Those  who  have  tested  summer  fallowing  for 
years,  consecutively,  say  that  an  average  yield  of  fifty  bushels  per  acre 
can  safely  be  expected,  while  an  average  of  twenty-five  bushels,  one  year 
with  another,  on  land  that  has  produced  four  or  five  crops  is  not  below 
the  actual  results.  This  estimate  would  give  us  in  a period  of  ten  years 
the  same  quantity  of  grain  for  each  method  of  farming.  The  cost  of 
producing  a bushel  of  grain  by  the  fallow  method  would  be  much  less 
than  by  continuous  cropping — hence  the  profits  the  greater. 

My  individual  experience  in  fallowing  leads  me  to  believe  there  is  a 
greater  difference  in  the  profits  of  the  two  methods  than  is  indicated 
above.  A few  years  since  I rented  a quarter  section  having  some  old 
land  on  it,  for  one-third  the  crop.  When  the  haying  season  came,  it  was 
agreed  that  the  crop  on  the  old  land  should  fie  cut  for  hay,  but  the  best 
terms  I could  get  from  the  tenant  were  that  I should  give  him  the 
whole  crop  and  twenty-five  cents  per  acre  to  cut  and  tqke  the  crop  off 
clean.  The  next  summer  I plowed  the  land  twice,  sowed  it  in  wheat  the 
following  fall  and  harvested  the  succeeding  summer  fifty-two  bushels  per 
acre.  I am  quite  confident  that  not  exceeding  fifteen  or  twenty  bushels 
for  each  of  these  years  could  have  been  obtained  even  with  superior  cul- 
tivation. 

Yields  from  summer  fallow  are  without  exception  large.  I have 
never  heard  of  a small  one  in  the  Palouse  country.  No  business  that  I 
can  conceive  of  appears  to  be  so  free  from  risk  as  farming  here  by  this 
method.  The  farmer  is  thus  just  as  sure  to  realize  large  profits  as  he 
would  be  to  get  back  his  principal  with  interest  on  a time  deposit  in  a 
well  conducted  bank.  It  requires  less  stock  and  implements,  as  the  grain 
can  be  sown  in  the  fall,  the  remainder  of  the  time  till  harvest  being  de- 
voted to  plowing  for  the  next  crop. 

The  farmer  who  is  in  debt  says  he  cannot  afford  to  lose  every  other 
crop.  The  fact  is,  he  cannot  afford  to  do  otherwise.  As  small  yields  will 
inevitably  impoverish  any  farmer  in  a country  like  ours  when  the  cost 
of  cultivating  and  harvesting  is  large,  and  the  price  of  the  grain  is  com- 
paratively low. 

Whether  the  deductions  herein  are  correct  or  not,  it  is  evident  that 
the  fallow  system  of  farming,  which  has  passed  the  domain  of  experiment 
in  other  countries,  should  receive  the  thoughtful  consideration  of  every 
farmer.  Intelligent  attention  is  as  necessary  in  farming  as  in  any  other 
business.  It  is  related  of  a Frenchman  who  had  several  daughters  and 
land  enough  to  make  a frugal  support,  that  on  the  marriage  of  the  eldest 


56  Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

he  gave  her  half  his  farm,  and  by  superior  methods  of  cultivation  pro- 
duced as  much  on  the  remaining  half  as  he  had  on  the  whole.  On  the 
marriage  of  the  second  daughter,  he  gave  her  half  the  land  he  had  left, 
and  on  the  remainder,  or  one-fourth  of  his  original  holdings,  by  careful 
attention  and  by  bestowing  the  same  amount  of  labor  on  it  that  he  did 
on  the  whole  farm  he  filled  the  same  sized  granaries  and  barns  that  he 
did  before  his  daughters  commenced  marrying. 

DISCUSSION. 

Mr.  Lake:  Where  can  I find  the  statement  that  wheat  roots 
feed  to  the  depth  of  twelve  to  sixteen  feet  ? 

Mr.  McCroskey:  I can’t  give  you  the  authority,  but  I re- 
member years  ago  reading  it  in  my  father’s  library,  and  I have 
frequently  heard  of  similar  statements  from  California.  I have 
myself  seen  them  seven  feet  deep  in  this  land. 

Mr.  Lake:  We  are  taught  in  a general  way  that  the  cereals 
are  shallow  feeders  and  are  not  these  rare  instances  of  which  you 
speak.  I have  been  told  that  much  of  the  land  in  this  section 
is  underlain  at  no  great  depth  with  an  impervious  stratum  of 
soil  akin  to  clay.  I am  told  that  much  of  the  dark  soil  on  the 
south  hillsides  is  not  more  than  twelve  to  eighteen  inches  deep. 
If  this  is  the  case  I can’t  see  how  the  wheat  roots  can  go  to  this 
depth  here  except  in  very  favorable  localities,  so  that  it  must  be 
a comparatively  shallow  feeder  still. 

Dr.  Simpson:  The  professor  has  not  been  informed  correctly. 
Large  areas  of  this  section  have  a soil  rich,  warm  and  fertile, 
extending  from  five  to  eighteen  or  more  feet  deep,  while  only  a 
small  area  is  underlain  with  a clay  subsoil  near  the  surface,  and 
I am  satisfied  this  clay  when  turned  up  at  the  right  time  — when 
it  is  moist— and  slacked,  will  be  as  fertile  as  any  surface  soil 
we  now  have. 

Mr.  Evans:  In  digging  several  wells  in  our  section  of  this 
Palouse  plateau  I have  never  yet  struck  what  I should  call  an 
impervious  stratum  except  occasionally  when  one  of  these  clay 
outcroppings  become  thoroughly  dry. 

Mr.  Scobey:  What  does  it  cost  to  produce  and  market  an 
acre  of  wheat? 

Mr.  McCroskey:  About  $9.50. 


Bulletin  3. — February , 1892. 


57 


Mr.  Scobey:  What  is  the  average  price  obtained  for  the 
crop? 

Mr.  McCroskey:  Excepting  the  last  two  years  it  would  be 
about  fifty-two  cents  per  bushel.  Before  that  time  it  was  some- 
what less. 

Mr.  Courtright:  During  the  past  six  years,  with  the  ex- 
ception above  made,  I have  paid  about  forty-five  cents.  For  a 
period  of  twelve  years  before  that  thirty-five  cents  would  be  an 
average. 

Mr.  Scobey:  What  is  a good  average  crop  for  every  year? 

Mr.  McCroskey:  Our  best  practice,  I think,  is  conceded  to 
be  to  fallow  and  grow  one  crop  every  two  years,  except  on 
virgin  land  for  the  first  five  or  six  years.  In  this  way  we  get 
from  forty-five  to  sixty  bushels  per  acre.  ’ 

Mr.  Scobey:  That  would  make  an  average  of  twenty-five 
bushels  or  more  for  each  year.  This  would  leave  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  |2.50  to  $3  per  acre  profit.  I think  I should  prefer 
the  cow  at  this  rate,  even  if  butter  sold  for  twenty  cents  per 
pound.  How  much  do  the  best  farmers  sow  per  acre? 

Mr.  McCroskey:  From  one  bushel  to  one  and  a half  bushels. 
I deem  one  bushel  enough,  and  after  some  trials  find  this 
amount  to  give  best  returns. 

Mr.  Chase:  For  the  last  few  years  I have  sowed  one  bushel. 
Before  this  I used  from  five  pecks  to  one  and  a half  bushels.  But 
when  we  have  dry  hot  winds  more  damage  is  done  the  thick 
than  the  thin  seeded  fields,  and  in  the  average  season  I think 
the  yield  somewhat  ahead  when  one  bushel  is  used. 

A.  J.  Williams:  It  must  be  remembered  that  we  have  only 
been  raising  wheat  in  this  section  a few  years,  and  during  those 
few  years  we  have  had  good  prices;  before  this  we  only  had  a 
small  area  in  wheat  and  prices  ranged  accordingly. 

Mr.  Burns:  Though  our  main  crop  is  wheat,  and  we  are  not 
getting  poor  raising  it,  I think  we  should  do  more  or  less  graz- 
ing. Both  together  are  surely  better  than  either  one  alone. 
But  if  we  should  all  go  into  dairying  we  should  not  only  get 
less  than  forty  cents  per  pound  for  butter,  but  we  should  be 


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Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


obliged  to  give  it  away.  In  fact  I have  seen  the  time,  and  that 
not  longer  ago  than  last  summer,  when  we  had  to  pack  it  at 
home,  as  the  markets  were  overstocked.  And  in  wheat  raising 
I think  we  must  summer  fallow  if  we  would  maintain  our  present 
yield.  For  the  first  few  years  on  virgin  land  we  can  raise  a crop 
every  year,  but  this  should  not  be  long  continued. 

Mr.  Scobey:  This  market  question  for  the  dairy  product  is 
a myth.  It  is  true  we  may  not  have  a local  market,  that  is 
quite  probable;  but  if  we  once  get  to  manufacturing  this  product 
in  bulk  the  outside  market  will  soon  be  ours.  Buyers  cannot 
afford  to  come  here  for  a crock  or  washtub  full  when  they  want 
a carload.  I should  like  to  ask  from  what  seedings  you  get  the 
best  results,  spring  or  fall,  and  from  drill  or  broadcast? 

Mr.  Chase:  I have  tried  both  and  can  see  no  difference.  I 
should  use  the  drill  in  the  fall  and  broadcast  in  spring. 

Mr.  Burns:  Three  years  ago  I sowed  fifty  acres;  half  was 
drilled,  the  other  half  was  broadcast.  There  was  no  perceptible 
difference  in  the  yield,  though  it  was  all  sown  at  the  same  time 
and  other  similar  conditions  save  the  manner  of  sowing. 

E.  B.  Williams:  We  are  troubled  here  with  considerable 
smut,  and  I would  like  to  know  what  causes  it. 

President  Lilley:  How  do  you  treat  your  seed? 

Mr.  Williams:  We  vitriol  it,  but  some  years  there  seems  to 
be  no  difference  between  that  treated  and  the  untreated  seed. 

Mr.  Eyans:  I vitriol  my  seed,  and  have  no  trouble  with  smut. 

Mr.  Chase:  If  vitrioled  thoroughly,  and  soil  is  in  good  con- 
dition, there  will  be  no  loss  from  smut.  I use  one  pound  to 
eight  bushels  of  grain,  and  my  grain  has  been  practically  free 
from  smut  for  years. 

Mr.  Clark:  Some  years  since,  we  sowed  several  acres  of 
wheat  by  lands  as  fast  as  plowed.  It  all  did  well  save  one  cor- 
ner, which  was  on  a northwest  hillside.  This  was  badly  affected 
with  smut,  and  I charged  it  to  a thunder  storm  which  passed 
over  this  portion  in  full  fury. 

: I have  noticed  that  the  greater  part  of  heads  partially 

affected  have  the  southwest  side  injured. 


Bulletin  3. — February , 1893. 


59 


President  Lilley:  There  is  a,  germ  on  the  kernel,  and  this 
must  be  killed  before  the  seed  is  sown.  It  would  seem  that  if 
vitrioling  is  well  done  there  would  be  no  chance  for  this  trouble. 
There  are  several  fungicides  used.  The  one  that  seems  to  give 
the  best  results  in  Kansas,  Nebraska  and  the  two  Dakotas  is  im- 
mersion of  the  seed  for  fifteen  minutes  in  water  at  134  degrees 
Fahrenheit.  Care  must  be  taken  to  keep  the  water  at  that  tem- 
perature during  the  process.  The  seed  should  be  placed  in  a 
basket  or  a frame  lined  with  wire  gauze,  and  when  dipped  into 
the  hot  water  the  temperature  will  fall.  This  must  be  overcome 
at  once  by  adding  hot  water  until  the  original  temperature  is 
reached.  The  temperature  must  not  fall  below  130  degrees, 
and  never  be  above  135  degrees.  If  the  seed  is  freed  from  adher- 
ing spores  it  will  produce  a clean  crop.  The  grain  may  be 
treated  several  days  or  weeks  by  the  hot  water  process  before 
seed  time,  or  it  may  be  sowed  directly  after  the  treatment  and 
before  completely  dried. 

Mr.  Burns:  If  the  seed  is  well  disinfected  there  will  be  no 
smut.  The  common  way  of  dipping  a sack  full  into  a barrel, 
and  letting  it  soak,  is  an  uncertain  way  of  treating  it.  The 
seed  should  be  put  into  a vat  or  trough  and  thoroughly  mixed 
with  vitriol. 

Mr.  Lake:  It  seems  to  me  the  question  of  wheat  smut  is  not 
settled  as  well  as  it  ought  to  be  for  an  institute  the  size  of  this. 
It  should  be  known  that  the  smuts  are  plants — parasitic  in 
nature  — and  have  parts  that  correspond  to  the  seeds  of  other 
plants.  The  dust  from  a “toadstool”  or  a “puff  ball”  is  the 
seed  of  those  plants,  and  so  the  dust  from  a head  of  smutted 
wheat  is  the  seed  of  the  smut  plant.  This  dust,  or  these  seeds, 
or  spores,  as  they  are  called,  settle  upon  the  whole  grain. 
When  these  latter  are  sown  the  smut  spores  are  sown  with 
them,  germinate  with  them,  and  as  the  root  (?)  body  of  the 
smut  plant  grows  it  enters  the  young  wheat  sprout  and  grows 
with  it,  taking  from  the  wheat  plant  what  material  it  needs  for 
its  development — the  same  as  a louse  may  live  upon  an  animal, 
for  instance  — and  when  the  wheat  plant  makes  ready  to  ripen 
its  grain  the  smut  does  likewise,  taking  for  its  own  use  the 

O 1 O 


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Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


milk  of  the  wheat  kernel  and  transforming  it  into  smut  spores 
for  another  crop  of  this  plant.  When  the  smut  plant  which  is 
living  in  and  upon  a particular  wheat  plant  is  strong,  it  may 
consume  the  milk  of  a whole  head  for  its  own  use,  while  if  it 
is  weak  only  a portion  may  be  consumed,  thus  making  whole, 
half,  or  less  smutted  heads. 


A WORD  ABOUT  WINDBREAKS. 

PROFESSOR  LAKE. 


In  all  ages  the  influence  of  forest  areas  and  shelter  belts  on  climate 
has  been  fully  recognized  and  in  many  instances  has  become  a theme 
for  discussion  by  eminent  thinkers,  philosophers  and  economists.  At  no 
period  in  the  past,  however,  has  the  real  significance  of  the  climatic  in- 
fluence of  forest  areas  been  so  generally  discussed  and  highly  esteemed 
as  to-day.  Never  before  has  the  mass  of  people,  especially  the  soil-tillers, 
bean  so  enlightened  on  this  subject  as  now,  and  still  we,  the  people  of  the 
most  progressive  nation  on  earth,  are  groping  along  in  forestal  darkness 
and  ignorance  with  regard  to  a subject  of  most  vital  interest  to  our  wel- 
fare in  various  directions.  But,  directing  our  attention  to  one  phase  of 
this  subject  which  more  especially  interests  us  locally,  we  find  not  only 
an  indifference,  but  an  apparent  antipathy  to  its  consideration.  This 
treeless  expanse  of  heavy  rolling  land  is  looked  upon  as  the  Eutopia  of 
the  agriculturist,  but  it  is  with  an  eye  single  to  cereal  growing  that  it  is 
so  seen.  As  history  attests,  wheat  growing  followed  for  a long  period  of 
years  will  not  only  impoverish  the  most  fertile  soils  but  it  will  impoverish 
the  people  who  follow  it,  both  mentally  and  financially.  Not  that  wheat 
growing  is  not  necessary  or  desirous,  but  to  make  it  the  exclusive  crop  is 
unwise  and  prodigal  in  the  extreme. 

Every  crop  requires  for  its  best  development  and  profitable  culture 
certain  mineral  elements,  which  are  taken  from  the  soil.  Some  plants 
require  more  of  a certain  element,  as  potash,  for  example,  than  others; 
while  these  second  ones  will  require  more  of  certain  other  elements  than 
the  former.  This  makes  it  incumbent  upon  us  to  vary  our  crops  if  we 
would  maintain  our  soil  fertility.  No  crop  affords  a better  source  of 
revenue  than  the  fruit-tree  crop,  when  properly  managed,  and  it  is  a crop 
that  will  flourish  for  years  and  years  on  our  peculiar  soil  without  mate- 
rially lessening  its  fertility,  for,  be  it  understood  trees  are  deep  feeders, 
while  the  cereals  are  shallow  or  surface  feeders;  so  that  while  the  tree’s 
roots  may  ramify  through  tons  of  earth,  the  roots  of  the  cereals  will  only 
course  and  recourse  through  the  few  inches  annually  or  biennially  turned 
by  the  plow  — all  plant  food  lying  below  that  depth  being  practically  be- 


Bulletin  3. — February , 1893. 


61 


yond  our  reach,  and  of  no  avail  in  the  manufacture  of  plant  products  of 
this  class. 

But  while  the  fruit-tree  crop  may  be  the  means  of  bringing  this  other- 
wise inert  material  into  activity,  it  may  not  be  a profitable  crop;  for  if 
the  fruit  product  from  this  crop  should,  for  any  reason,  be  restricted,  the 
income  from  the  fruit  crop  might  be  a negative  quantity;  however,  such 
results  are,  in  all  probability,  not  likely  to  fall  to  the  lot  of  the  careful 
orchardist  in  the  northwest.  In  this  particular  section,  where  orchard- 
ing is  yet  in  its  infancy,  and  where  the  natural  tree  growth  is  practically 
nothing,  there  are  some  matters  to  be  considered  that  do  not  occur  in 
other  sections,  and  chief  among  these  is  the  subject  of  windbreaks. 

At  the  recent  institute  held  at  Colton,  it  was  learned  that  while  all  the 
hardy  orchard  trees  may  and  have  done  well  in  several  instances  for  the 
past  ten  and  twelve  years,  there  being  no  cases  recorded  of  the  winter- 
killing  of  such  trees,  they  do  not  produce  as  much  fruit  on  the  south-south- 
west side  as  on  other  parts  of  the  trees  — in  fact,  where  the  trees  ar,e 
exposed  to  the  “Chinooks,”  they  are  not  so  fully  developed  on  the  wind- 
ward side  as  on  the  leeward  side. 

These  facts  coupled  with  the  general  conclusions  that  our  prominent 
horticulturists  and  foresters  have  long  since  reached,  iti  regard  to  the 
ameliorating  influences  of  timber  belts  and  screens,  lead  me  to  urge  upon 
all  who  would  plant  fruit  trees  the  desirability  of  planting  windbreaks. 
Since  it  is  somewhat  impracticable  to  have  any  large  bodies  of  timber 
in  this  section  it  devolves  upon  us  to  plant  many  small  belts  or  screens. 
To  enumerate  briefly  some  of  the  advantages  of  windbreaks  I can  do  no 
better  than  give  .a  summary  of  some  investigations  recently  carried  on 
by  Professor  L.  H.  Bailey,  in  which  he  states  the  benefit  of  windbreaks 
to  be:  protection  from  cold;  lessening  of  evaporation  from  soil  and  plants; 
lessening  of  windfalls;  lessening  of  liability  to  mechanical  injury  of 
trees;  retention  of  snow  and  leaves;  facilitating  of  labor;  protection  of 
blossoms  from  severe  winds;  enabling  trees  to  grow  more  erect;  lessen- 
ing of  injury  from  the  drying  up  of  small  fruits;  hastening  of  maturity 
of  fruits  in  some  cases;  encouragement  of  birds;  ornamentation. 

There  are  some  drawbacks  also  if  we  consider  the  experience  of  fruit- 
growers as  conclusive.  Windbreaks  are  said  to  harbor  insects;  fungous 
foes;  to  encroach  upon  the  orchard  planting,  and  to  keep  out  warm 
winds. 

These  are  minor  objections,  however,  and  so  far  as  this  great  inland 
territory  is  concerned,  have  no  weight  as  against  the  benefits. 

The  position  of  windbreaks  will  depend  much  upon  the  local  position 
of  the  orchard.  For  many  reasons  the  aspect  to  be  selected  should  be  a 
northern  one.  This  would  imply  a screen  on  the  south  and  west  sides. 
Where  an  orchard  is  to  the  eastward  of  a high  hill  a screen  on  the 
south  would  be  all-sufficient. 

Perhaps  our  needs  here  would  best  be  met  by  planting  a mixed  belt, 
and  for  this  purpose  our  native  trees  could  be  used  to  advantage.  Our 
native  firs  and  pines  mingled  with  maples,  cottonwoods  and  more  or  less 
nut  trees  would  undoubtedly  make  excellent  windbreaks.  If  belts  of 


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these  trees,  varying  in  width  from  forty  to  sixty  or  more  feet,  with  the 
deciduous  trees  on  the  windward  side  and  the  firs  and  pines  not  closer 
together  than  eight  or  ten  feet,  planted  at  the  same  time  the  orchard  is 
set  out  and  at  least  two  rods,  and  better  four  rods  away,  results  from 
orcharding  with  the  hardier  fruits  would  undoubtedly  be  much  more 
favorable  in  this  particular  section 

Windbreaks  should  not  be  dense.  They  are  simply  to  break  or  check 
the  wind  and  not  to  stop  it. 

DISCUSSION. 

Mr.  Love:  When  I came  here  some  years  ago  people  told 
me  not  to  waste  any  time,  labor  and  money  in  growing  fruit. 
After  I had  heeded  this  very  poor  advice  four  years  I planted 
out  some  apples.  This  was  five  years  ago.  A large  part  of 
them  killed  off.  But  not  being  satisfied  with  the  experience,  I 
tried  again.  This  time  I put  out  one-year  old  trees  instead  of 
three-year  old  trees,  and  here  (exhibiting  a good  sized,  fair 
colored  Ben  Davis)  is  a fair  sample  of  the  fruit  picked  from 
these  trees  this  past  autumn.  Does  that  not  speak  for  itself? 
But  I am  not  certain  that  I have  been  wise  in  planting  my 
orchard  on  a north  slope,  though  that  is  the  general  advice 
given.  I find  that  my  trees  grow  vigorously,  produce  a great 
amount  of  foliage,  and  give  a good  crop  of  fruit,  but  much  of 
it  is  not  well  colored;  being  on  the  north  side,  it  is  too  much 
shaded.  Would  it  not  be  better  to  have  these  trees  where  they 
can  get  more  direct  sun? 

Mr.  Lake:  At  the  recent  meeting  at  Colton,  Mr.  Barkhuff 
stated  that  those  trees  in  his  orchard  exposed  to  the  winds  did 
not  develop  on  the  windward  side,  and  consequently  the  fruit 
was  much  inferior  as  well  as  less  in  quantity  on  these  portions. 
If  the  slope  is  not  too  abrupt  it  would  not  seem  that  our  trees 
could  get  much  more  sun  on  an  easy  south  slope  than  on  a 
similar  north  one,  with  our  long,  bright  autumn  days;  for  in 
either  case  the  north  side  of  the  tree  would  be  shaded,  and 
especially  so  if  the  tops  are  dense.  No,  I think  Mr.  Love  has 
not  been  unwise  in  selecting  a north  slope.  If  his  trees  grow  over- 
vigorously,  he  should  prune  as  vigorously,  and  open  the  heads. 
The  advice  to  plant  on  a north  slope  is  generally  given  because 
trees  in  this  location  are  less  liable  to  winter-kill,  blight,  sour- 


Bulletin  3. — February , 1893. 


63 


sap,  etc.  If  we  were  to  plant  windbreaks  generously  I doubt 
not  it  would  be  advisable  to  plant  many  of  our  hardier  and  late 
varieties  on  a southerly  exposure.  But  it  will  be  years  before 
the  average  planter  will  realize  the  full  importance  of  wind- 
breaks, not  only  to  his  orchard,  but  his  stock,  and  indirectly, 
himself  as  well.  In  the  meantime,  I think  it  wise  to  select 
northern  slopes,  not  abrupt  ones,  but  gentle  ones,  so  that  trees 
may  be  protected  from  the  chinook  blasts  and  too  much  of  the 
warm  rays  of  the  sun  in  early  spring. 

Mr.  Love:  I find  it  essential  to  healthy  trees  that  they  be 
headed  low,  not  more  than  two  feet,  and  trees  should  be  well 
cultivated.  If  one  can  go  into  an  orchard  and  by  pushing  aside 
a few  inches  of  the  soil  find  it  moist  below,  the  orchard  is  in  the 
best  of  condition. 

Mr.  Lake:  Another  point  in  orchard  care  that  should  be 
looked  to  in  this  Northwest  is  the  matter  of  thinning  fruit. 
Our  trees  are  prone  to  over-produce,  resulting  in  much  damage 
to  the  physical  make-up  of  the  tree,  as  well  as  yielding  a crop 
of  fruit  more  or  less  inferior  in  size,  flavor  and  color.  This 
thinning  should  be  done  early  in  the  season,  and  as  soon  as  the 
orchard  begins  to  bear  heavily.  Look  to  this  matter  of  prun- 
ing and  thinning  before  the  trees  get  old  and  partly  broken 
down. 


HANDLING  AND  MARKETING  GRAIN. 

J.  O.  COURTRIGHT. 


We  will  attempt  to  notice  briefly  several  questions  pertaining  to  the 
marketing  of  grain,  but  more  particularly  wheat. 

The  first  thing  is  to  see  that  the  grain  is  properly  harvested  and 
threshed,  and  particularly  to  see  that  the  wheat  is  not  cracked  in  thresh- 
ing. There  is  nothing  more  destructive  than  this,  as  the  broken  grain 
can  only  be  used  for  feed  and  causes  a direct  loss. 

We  will  next  notice  the  question  of  sacking  grain.  It  is  generally  con- 
ceded that  it  is  cheaper  and  more  convenient  to  sack  the  grain  at  the 
machine  as  it  is  threshed,  and  this  is  doubtless  true  as  long  as  we  follow 
the  present  ruinous  practice  of  selling  and  shipping  our  wheat  without 
cleaning.  But  when  the  practice  becomes  universal  of  cleaning  our 


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Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


wheat,  either  at  the  shipping  point  or  terminal  elevators,  it  will  be  far 
better  and  cheaper  to  have  granaries  on  the  farm  to  receive  the  wheat  as 
threshed,  and  deliver  it  loose  to  the  warehouses  or  elevators. 

By  comparing  the  cost  you  will  find  that  granaries  can  be  constructed 
of  common  lumber,  that  will  last  several  years,  to  cost  less  than  the  sacks 
would  cost  for  a single  crop;  and  they  could  be  so  constructed  that  an 
elevator  could  be  attached  to  the  thresher  and  the  grain  carried  directly 
into  the  granary  and  drawn  out  into  wagon  boxes,  without  any  of  the 
hard  labor  of  lifting  and  handling  sacked  grain.  It  is  sometimes  argued 
that  our  roads  are  so  rough  that  the  grain  would  spill  out,  but  extra  side- 
boards on  the  wagon  boxes  would  prevent  that. 

Recent  experiments  in  shipping  wheat  to  Europe  has  proved  that 
wheat  can  be  shipped  in  bulk,  and  when  the  Nicaragua  canal  is  com- 
pleted we  may  expect  to  see  the  larger  portion  of  the  wheat  exported 
from  the  United  States  shipped  from  the  Pacific  coast  ports. 

The  question  of  cleaning  our  wheat  for  market  is  a very  important  one 
in  several  respects.  It  is  often  urged,  and  is  at  present  in  a great  measure 
true,  that  our  prices  are  based  on  what  is  called  Walla  Walla  wheat,  which 
means  just  as  it  is  thrqshed,  without  recleaning,  and  that  if  we  should 
clean  it  we  would  not  receive  any  better  price  and  would  lose  just  the 
amount  cleaned  out.  That  would  only  apply  at  all  to  Portland  and  Puget 
Sound  markets;  and  there  is  no  good  reason  why,  with  a careful  selection 
of  the  best  varieties  of  seed  wheat  and  the  practice  of  cleaning  being 
universal,  that  our  wheat  should  not  grade  with  Willamette  Valley  wheat 
in  that  market,  and  in  our  local  and  Eastern  markets  it  would  make  a 
very  material  difference.  In  one  instance  coming  under  our  notice,  by 
docking  from  one-half  pound  to  one  pound  per  bushel,  the  grade  was 
raised  from -seven  to  eight  cents  per  bushel. 

We  believe  the  best  place  for  cleaning  grain  to-  be  shipped  is  at  the 
shipping  point,  where  the  grain  is  being  delivered  to  the  elevators,  thereby 
saving  quite  an  item  of  freight  and  insuring  a more  uniform  grade,  and 
thus  avoiding  the  pretext  for  rejecting. 

And  right  here  we  would  urge  the  necessit}^  for  state  weighers  and  in- 
spectors. Our  experience  has  taught  us  that  exporters  left  to  do  their 
own  inspecting  manage  to  enlarge  their  profits  at  will  at  the  expense  of 
the  farmers  by  grading  too  low. 

With  state  inspection  and  weighing  a farmer  could  feel  perfectly  safe 
in  consigning  his  wheat  to  a responsible  commission  merchant  for  sale. 

The  plan  of  cooperation  in  storing  and  selling  grain  is  of  great  value 
to  the  farmers,  inasmuch  as  it  gives  them  the  advantage  of  knowing  just 
what  their  grain  is  worth  on  the  market,  and  enables  them  to  obtain  full 
market  value  besides  the  saving  in  storing  and  handling  charges.  We 
hear  and  read  a great  deal  about  gambling  in  grain,  and  a bill  has  lately 
been  introduced  in  congress  to  correct  the  abuses  of  board  of  trade  deal- 
ings, and  we  hope  such  laws  may  be  passed  that  will  effectually  prevent 
speculators  selling  large  quantities  of  grain  which  they  do  not  own  nor 
expect  to  deliver,  thereby  depressing  prices  to  the  farmers  until  they  get 
the  larger  portion  of  crops  in  their  possession  and  then  raising  the  prices 


65 


Bulletin  3. — February,  1892. 


to  consumers,  thus  robbing  the  farmer  on  the  one  hand  and  largely  the 
poor  laborer  on  the  other. 

The  question  which  probably  perplexes  the  farmer  more  than  anything 
else  is  the  time  to  sell. 

Even  before  the  crop  is  planted  the  intelligent  farmer  begins  to  look 
ahead  to  see,  if  possible,  what  the  prospects  are  for  prices  for  the  coming 
crop;  whether  the  outlook  justifies  a larger  or  smaller  area  of  the  differ- 
ent varieties  of  grain.  Here  we  see  the  need  of  a*bureau  of  information 
separate  and  distinct  from  that  given  by  the  boards  of  trade  and  spec- 
ulators. 

This  the  agricultural  department  of  our  government  is  intended  to 'ac- 
complish, but  at  present  the  knowledge  to  be  obtained  from  there  is  not 
sufficiently  published.  Bulletins  should  be  published  monthly  at  least  in 
all  the  leading  newspapers,  that  both  the  farmer  and  consumer  may  know 
all  the  facts  appertaining  to  crops  and  probable  prices,  at  different 
periods  during  the  year.  Until  we  are  able  to  obtain  such  information 
we  will  have  to  depend  on  such  knowledge  as  we  can  obtain  and  our  own 
best  judgment. 

One  thing  that  is  highly  advisable  as  a rule  is  not  to  borrow  money  at 
a high  rate  of  interest  to  hold  grain.  In  certain  cases  it  might  pay  to 
hold,  as  when  prices  are  reduced  by  too  much  grain  being  offered,  but  in 
a great  many  cases  it  is  akin  to  gambling. 


STRANGLES;  OR,  COLT  DISTEMPER. 

DR.  MUNN. 


Strangles,  or  colt  distemper,  is  a disease  which  affects  nearly  all  young 
horses,  and  while  not  generally  considered  of  a very  serious  nature,  for 
but  a small  percentage  of  cases  are  fatal,  yet  when  we  take  into  consid- 
eration the  fact  that  but  few  horses  arrive  at  maturity  without  an  attack 
of  more  or  less  severity,  and  also  that  not  a few  cases  are  left  with  some 
chronic  disease,  the  result  of  ignorance  or  carelessness  in  the  treatment 
and  care  of  the  animal  while  affected,  it  should  be  of  advantage  to  arrive 
at  as  clear  an  understanding  as  possible  of  its  nature,  symptoms,  and  a 
rational  method  of  treatment. 

It  is  defined  as  being  a febrile  disease  commonly  affecting  young 
horses,  and  in  most  cases  characterized  by  one  or  more  abscesses  situated 
between  the  branches  of  the  lower  jaw,  which  if  they  reach  maturity  dis- 
charge pus. 

Under  certain  conditions  it  appears  contagious,  while  under  others  it 
shows  no  tendency  to  spread.  It  seldom  attacks  an  animal  but  once,  al- 
though there  are  exceptions  to  this  rule.  The  name,  strangles,  is  derived 
from  the  symptoms  of  choking  and  strangulation  which  are  common  in 
many  cases. 


66 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


This  disease  occurs  in  two  forms:  Simple,  or  regular,  strangles;  and 
complicated,  or  irregular,  strangles.  In  the  simple,  or  regular,  form  it 
is  not  a very  serious  disease.  The  animal  is  dull,  has  a languid,  tired  ap- 
pearance, with  symptoms  similar  to  catarrh,  saliva  issues  from  the  mouth, 
and  more  or  less  discharge  from  the  nostrils;  at  times  the  head  is  carried 
in  a position  which  would  indicate  soreness  of  the  throat  or  jaws,  is  not 
inclined  to  feed,  and  has  some  difficulty  in-  deglutition,  combined  with  a 
cough  more  or  less  severe;  the  pulse  and  respiration  are  somewhat  af- 
fected, and  a swelling  shows  itself  in  the  submaxillary  space,  which  often 
increases  to  such  an  extent  that  the  breathing  is  interfered  with,  and  in 
some  cases  death  results  from  suffocation. 

The  disease  in  its  simple  form  generally  runs  its  course  in  from  six  to 
twelve  days,  and  the  animal  regains  his  health  and  strength  in  from  two 
to  three  weeks. 

By  the  term  irregular  or  complicated  strangles  is  meant  that  form  of 
the  disease  in  which  the  ordinary  symptoms  and  features  are  departed 
from.  This  form  of  strangles  most  frequently  attacks  horses  that  are 
constitutionally  weak  and  those  that  are  poorly,  cared  for  and  in  an  un- 
thrifty, debilitated  condition. 

There  is  an  increase  in  the  temperature,  the  pulse  more  frequent, 
swellings  and  inflammation  are  absent  from  the  submaxillary  space  and 
found  in  connection  with  the  parotid  gland,  below  the  ear,  the  lymph 
glands  of  the  neck,  in  front  of  the  shoulder  joint,  in  the  groin,  or  in  con- 
nection with  the  gland  structures  of  the  internal  organs.  Although  this 
form  of  strangles  is  generally  irregular  and  complicated  from  the  start, 
it  is  sometimes  observed  in  cases  that  begin  as  simple  strangles,  the 
swellings  in  the  submaxillary  space  makes  its  appearance  but  does  not 
progress  to  a healthy  termination,  the  formation  of  pus  is  tardy,  or  the 
inflammatory  product  appears  to  be  absorbed,  and  the  entire  system  is 
disturbed.  Tumors  may  form  in  the  thoracic  or  abdominal  cavity,  and  a 
case  in  which  this  occurs  generally  terminates  fatally. 

In  treating  horses  affected  with  strangles,  it  becomes  quite  evident 
that  those  which  are  kept  in  dark,  damp,  ill-ventilated  stables,  invariably 
suffer  more  from  the  severity  of  the  disease,  are  affected  for  a longer 
period,  and  do  not  make  as  good  a recovery  as  do  those  more  favorably 
located,  with  the  advantages  of  a pure,  dry  atmosphere,  with  good  light. 
We  should  be  particular,  then,  to  obtain,  if  possible,  these  very  valuable 
requisites  to  our  treatment.  As  this  disease  is  more  common  during  the 
spring  and  fall,  our  patient  should  be  protected  by  proper  clothing  from 
the  sudden  changes  in  the  atmosphere.  Few  cases  of  simple  strangles  re- 
quire much  medical  treatment.  There  will  be  more  or  less  fever,  and 
with  it  thirst.  Clean,  fresh  water  should  be  kept  within  reach  of  the 
patient,  and  in  it  we  may  dissolve  mild  febrifuges,  as  nitrate  of  potash, 
one-half  ounce  to  a pail  of  water,  or  solution  of  the  acetate  of  ammonia, 
four  or  five  ounces,  or  a like  amount  of  sulphate  of  magnesia.  Give  food 
that  will  be  nourishing  and  easity  digested  without  causing  irritation  to 
the  digestive  organs. 

Pay  particular  attention  to  the  swelling  in  the  submaxillary  space. 


Bulletin  3. — February , 189 2. 


67 


Hot  fomentations  and  poultices  hasten  the  formation  of  pus.  The  parts 
should  be  kept  clean,  and,  if  the  tumor  appears  to  be  slow  in  pointing,  a 
mild  blister  will  often  stimulate  the  local  action  and  develop  the  abscess, 
which  when  mature  will  soften,  rupture  the  skin  and  discharge  itself,  or, 
in  some  cases,  may  be  opened.  In  cases  of  irregular  strangles,  the  same 
general  treatment  should  be  adopted. 

Too  much  stress  cannot  be  laid  upon  the  fact  that  proper  diet  and 
sanitary  conditions  are  of  as  much  importance  as  the  medical  treatment. 
When  green  food  can  be  obtained  and  given  fresh  in  moderate  quantities, 
it  is  preferable  to  any  other.  When  not  obtainable,  scalded  oats  and 
bran,  with  two  or  three  ounces  of  raw  linseed  oil  or  molasses,  may  be 
given  two  or  three  times  a day,  along  with  good  hay  in  small  quantities. 

If  local  inflammations  or  swellings  indicate  pus  formations,  treat  as 
directed  in  the  simple  form,  and  give  a dependent  opening  when  abscess 
matures. 

In  cases  where  loss  of  appetite  is  persistent  ancl  the  animal  refuses  all 
ordinary  food,  try  liquid  food,  as  milk  and  good  beef  tea;  and,  although 
not  to  be  recommended  except  in  desperate  cases,  it  may  become  neces- 
sary to  forcibly  feed  the  animal  for  a few  days  on  such  food  as  raw  eggs 
whipped  up  in  milk,  together  with  wine  or  ale. 

In  those  cases,  which  happily  are  comparatively  few,  the  swelling  in 
the  submaxillary  space  becomes  of  such  size  before  maturity,  or  the  in- 
flammation affects  the  larynx  and  upper  air  passages  to  such  an  extent, 
that  the  function  of  respiration  is  obstructed  and  there  appears  great 
danger  from  suffocation,  it  may  become  necessary  to  perform  trache- 
otomy— that  is,  to  place  a tube  in  the  windpipe  below  the  obstruction, 
thus  allowing  our  patient  to  obtain  the  oxygen  needed  to  sustain  life. 

During  recovery  good  food  and  care  should  be  continued,  and  a little 
exercise  should  be  given  as  the  animal  gains  in  strength;  but  do  not  ex- 
pose to  cold  or  put  to  work  until  health  and  strength  have  entirely 
returned. 

DISCUSSION. 

Mr.  Courtright:  Will  distemper  or  strangles  run  into  nasal 
gleet  or  glanders. 

Dr.  Munn:  It  may  render  the  animal  more  susceptible  to 
gleet,  but  no  disease  will  run  into  glanders. 

Mr.  Evans:  Is  this  disease  contagious? 

Dr.  Munn:  Yes. 

Mr.  Scobey:  How  do  you  perform  tracheotomy? 

Dr.  Munn:  Make  an  incision  in  the  under  side  of  the  wind 
pipe,  about  six  or  eight  inches  below  the  swelling,  and  insert  a 
tube. 

A Member:  Does  the  wound  need  to  be  ^ewed  up? 


68 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

Dr.  Munn:  No,  it  will  heal  up  if  given  good  care. 

Mr.  Scobey:  In  what  cases  would  you  lance  the  abscess  ? 

Dr.  Munn:  In  cases  where  the  abscess  appeared  to  be  soft 
and  fluctuating,  yet  the  skin  too  thick  to  allow  the  pus  to 
escape  and  the  liability  to  the  formation  of  pipes  or  sinuses. 

Mr.  Scobey:  How  would  you  treat  the  abscess  after  it  is 
lanced  or  has  ruptured  itself  ? 

Dr.  Munn:  Keep  clean  and  inject  with  solution  of  carbolic 
acid  of  blue  vitriol? 

Mr.  Scobey:  What  is  liable  to. result  from  strangles? 

Dr.  Munn  : Roaring  or  whistling,  and  in  some  cases  blood 


poisoning. 


Bulletin  3. — February,  1892. 


69 


ATTENDANCE. 


The  following  persons  were  in 


John  H.  Bland,  . . 

. Garfield. 

George  Wykoff,  . . 

. . Garfield. 

T.  F.  Mullin,  . . . 

. Garfield. 

Mrs.  L.  J.  Halley, 

. Garfield. 

A.  T.  Davis,  . . . 

Garfield. 

Frank  Ayatt,  . . . 

. Garfield. 

Mrs.  L.  A.  Manning, 

. Garfield. 

C.  E.  Highey,  . . . 

. Garfield. 

John  M.  Hendry,  . 

. Garfield. 

Isabel  Irwin,  . . . 

. Garfield. 

A.  J.  Irwin,  . . . 

. Garfield. 

J.  H.  Longwill,  . 

. Oakesdale. 

E.  W.  Williams,  . . 

. Garfield. 

A.  W.  Lemon,  . . . 

. Garfield. 

G.  E.  Selts,  . . . 

. Garfield. 

Delina  Morris,  . . 

. . Garfield. 

Mrs.  Wm.  Doling,  . 

. Garfield. 

P.  H.  McIntosh,  . 

. . Garfield. 

Callie  Beach,  . . . 

. Garfield. 

Ocille  Mitchell,  . . 

. Garfield. 

S.  Sage, 

Garfield. 

E.  B.  Williams,  . . 

. Garfield. 

R.  B.  Thompson, 

Garfield. 

A.  P.  Hall,  . . . . 

. Garfield. 

James  Barber,  . . 

. Garfield. 

P.  H.  Burk,  . . . . 

. Garfield. 

Henry  Hill,  . . 

. Garfield. 

Gus.  Becker,  . . . 

. Garfield. 

William  Hendry,  . 

. Garfield. 

John  Beach,  . . . 

. Garfield. 

J.  E.  Roberts,  . . 

. Garfield. 

W.W.Reorin,  . . . 

. Garfield. 

L.  P.  Rounds,  . . 

. Garfield. 

W.  H.  Gwinn,  . . . 

. Garfield. 

A.  J.  Madden,  . . 

. Garfield. 

C.T.  Ryckman,  . . 

. Garfield. 

S.  P.  Syron,  . . . 

. Garfield. 

D.  Black,  . . . . 

. Garfield. 

J.  G.  White,  . . . 

. Garfield. 

L.  S.  Trowbridge,  . 

. Garfield. 

D.  D.  Vernon,  . . 

Garfield. 

attendance: 


J.T.  Allison,  ... 

. Garfield. 

Jas.  L.  Dutton,  . . . 

Garfield. 

S.  0.  Rapet,  . . . 

. Garfield. 

B.  L.  Simpson,  . . 

Garfield. 

Fred.  W.  Kock,  . . 

. Garfield. 

N.  C.  Bicknell,  . . . 

Garfield . 

H.  H.Shally,  . . . 

. Garfield. 

R.  I.  Evans,  . . . . 

. Colfax. 

L.  L.  Potter,  . . . 

. Garfield. 

Ora  Mauring, 

Garfield . 

Samuel  Irwin,  . . 

. Garfield. 

W.  M.  Sells,  . . . . 

Garfield. 

Alvira  Mauring,  . . 

. Garfield. 

Alvin  Mauring,  . . 

Garfield. 

Frank  Larkin,  . . . 

. Garfield. 

J.  M.  Chasteen,  . 

Garfield. 

Eli  Mason,  .... 

. Garfield. 

L.  L.  Bondeli, 

Garfield. 

Perry  Larkin,  . . . 

. Garfield. 

S.  B.  Shoemaker,  . . 

Garfield. 

Mrs.  Cawfield,  . . 

. Garfield. 

Mrs.  G.  W.  Turner, 

Garfield. 

S.  T.  Laird,  . . . 

. Garfield. 

Mrs.  P.  W.  Lawrence,  . 

Garfield. 

Mrs.  E.  E.  Steele, 

. Garfield. 

Mrs.  William  Laird, 

Garfield. 

Maud  Williams,  . 

. Garfield. 

Miss  Duling,  . . . . 

Garfield. 

Miss  Baylor,  . . . 

. Garfield. 

Dr.  Samuel  Simpson,  . 

Garfield. 

J.  H.  Watson,  . . . 

. Garfield. 

E.  B.  Williams,  . . . 

Garfield. 

J.N.  Bicknell,  . . 

. Garfield. 

William  Laird,  . . 

Garfield. 

Jesse  Gilliam,  . . . 

. Garfield. 

A.  S.  Beach,  . 

Garfield. 

S.  J.  Taut,  . . 

. Garfield. 

Adam  Black,  . . . 

Garfield. 

Geo.  Mauring,  . . 

. Garfield. 

Chas.  Finch,  . . . . 

Garfield. 

F.  L.  Gwinn,  . . 

. Garfield. 

70  Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


L.  C.  Love,  . . . . 

Garfield. 

William  Gore,  . . 

. Garfield. 

M.  F.  Cochran,  . . 

. Garfield. 

L.  W.  Fallis,  . . . 

. Garfield. 

N . K.  Gartin,  .... 

Garfield. 

Chas.  McMillan, 

. Garfield. 

C.  A.  Boyd,  .... 

. Garfield. 

Chas.  Syron,  . . . 

. Garfield. 

Jacob  Dicus,  .... 

Garfield. 

Saut.  Manring,  . . 

. Garfield. 

Mrs.  J.  R.  Bennett,  . 

. Garfield. 

Lee  McCool,  . . . 

. Garfield. 

Z.  Cox, 

Garfield. 

G.  B.  Lish,  . . . 

. Garfield. 

Hon.  R.  C.  McCroskey, 

. Garfield. 

Grant  Discus,  . • . . 

. Fairfield. 

John  Williams,  . . . 

Garfield. 

J.  E.  Brown,  . . . 

. Garfield. 

A.  J.  Chase,  . . . 

. Garfield. 

William  Syron,  . . 

. Garfield. 

A.  J.  Williams,  . . . 

Garfield. 

W.  C.  Clark,  . . . 

. Garfield. 

E.  W.  Jones,  . . . 

. Garfield. 

William  Westacott,  . 

. Garfield. 

M.  Byrne, 

Garfield. 

W.  S.  Sanders,  . . 

. Garfield. 

Fred.  Timm,  . . . 

. Garfield. 

Fred.  Bicknell,  . . 

. Garfield. 

W.  A.  Disney,  . . . 

Garfield. 

William  Simpson,  . 

. Garfield. 

A.  R.  Smith,  . . . 

. Garfield. 

Earnest  Lloyd,  . . 

. Garfield. 

T.  H.  McCown,  . . . 

Garfield. 

Luther  Burns,  . . 

. Garfield. 

L.B.  Subking,  . . . 

. Garfield. 

Rob’t  McGowen,  . . 

. Garfield. 

E.M.  Coleman,  . . . 

Garfield. 

J.  S.  Randolph,  . . 

. Garfield*. 

J.  E.  Bridwell,  . . 

. Garfield. 

W.  Y.  Crabtree,  . . 

. Garfield. 

Frank  Yan  Horn,  . . 

Garfield. 

Bryan  Westacott,  . 

. Garfield. 

F.  McLosh,  .... 

. Garfield. 

J.  O.  Courtriglit,  . . 

. Garfield. 

A.  L.  Webster,  . . . 

Garfield. 

A.  D.  Lloyd,  . . . 

Garfield. 

J.  R.  Bennett,  . . . 

. Garfield. 

Col.  Duling,  . . . 

. Garfield. 

Isaac  Fields,  .... 

Garfield. 

A.  Overby,  . . . 

. Garfield. 

F.  G.  Mitchell,  . . 

. Garfield. 

Frank  Madden,  . . 

. Garfield. 

M.  Baumgartner,  . . 

Garfield. 

*G.  F.  Stivers,  . . . 

. Garfield. 

C.  A.  Peairs,  . . . 

. Garfield. 

For  announcements  of  the  courses  of  instruction,  bulletins  of 
the  Experiment  Station  and  farmers’  institutes,  address  the  presi- 
dent of  the  College. 


STATE  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE  AND 
SCHOOL  OF  SCIENCE. 


Experiment  Station, 

PULLMAN,  WASHINGTON. 


Bulletin  4. 


DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


WIREWORMS. 


MAY,  1893. 


OLYMPIA,  WASH.: 

O.  C.  WHITE,  . . . STATE  PRINTER. 

1892. 


STATE  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE  AND 
SCHOOL  OF  SCIENCE. 


Experiment  Station, 

PULLMAN,  WASHINGTON. 


Bulletin  4. 


DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


WIRE  W OEMS. 


MAY,  1892. 


OLYMPIA,  WASH.: 

O.  C.  WHITE,  . . . STATE  PRINTER. 


1892. 


For  announcements  of  the  courses  of  instruction,  bulletins  of 
the  Experiment  Station  and  farmers’  institutes,  address  the 
President  of  the  College. 


STATION  OFFICERS. 


BOARD  OF  REGENTS. 

Hon.  S.  B.  Conover,  President, 

Andrew  H.  Smith,  Treasurer , . . 

Hon.  Eugene  J.  Fellows, 

J.  H.  Bellinger, 

George  W.  Hopp, 

Gov.  E.  P.  Ferry,  ex  officio  Advisory  Member, 

George  Lilley,  Secretary,  


STATION  STAFF. 

George  Lilley,  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D. 

Director. 

John  O’B.  Scobey,  A.  M., 
Agriculturist. 

Edward  R.  Lake,  M.  Sc., 
Horticulturist  and  Botanist. 

George  G.  Hitchcock,  A.  B., 
Chemist. 

Charles  E.  Munn,  V.  S., 
Veterinarian. 


ASSISTANTS. 

Edward  J.  Cheatham, 
Foreman  of  the  Farm. 

Nathan  Woodbeck, 
Elmer  Sparr, 
Teamsters. 

E.  Quimby  Merriman, 
Mailing  Clerk. 


Port  Townsend. 

Tacoma. 

Spokane. 

Colfax. 

Sedro. 

Olympia. 

Pullman. 


WIREWORMS. 


Reports  have  recently  been  received  at  this  Station  that  a worm, 
supposed  to  be  the  wireworm,  was  at  work  in  the  wheat  fields  in 
the  western  part  of  Garfield  county,  in  this  state,  with  requests  that 
the  matter  should  be  investigated  and  a report  made  for  the  benefit 
of  the  farmers  of  that  section,  or  wherever  the  pest  should  make  its 
appearance. 

A messenger  was  accordingly  dispatched  under  the  direction  of 
this  Station  to  the  affected  district  with  instructions  to  make  a col- 
lection of  the  worms. 

Through  the  efforts  of  the  farmers  of  that  section,  cooperating 
with  the  staff  of  this  Station,  we  have  been  put  into  possession  of  a 
large  number  of  specimens  of  the  pest. 

An  examination  of  the  worms  received  shows  them  to  be  wire- 
worms,  of  which  about  ninety  per  cent,  are  of  the  species  known 
as  Melanotus  communis , and  which  has  sometimes  been  called  the 
“corn  wireworm,”  although  there  exists  no  reason  why  it  should 
be  so  termed,  as  it  works  upon  wheat  and  other  plant  seeds  and 
roots  as  well  as  upon  corn.  The  other  ten  per  cent,  of  the  speci- 
mens received  belong  to  the  species  known  as  Ag^iotes  mancus,  or 
the  wheat  wireworm. 

The  wireworm  is  a well  known,  and  in  many  localities  a much 
dreaded  pest,  infesting  field  crops  generally.  Where  they  abound 
in  large  numbers  they  are  invariably  destructive  to  crops. 

The  wireworm  is  a slender  worm  and  when  full  grown  reaches 
a length  of  from  one  inch  to  an  inch  and  one-fourth.  The  body  is 
cylindrical  in  form,  with  the  ventral  or  under  part  considerably 
flattened.  The  body  is  divided  into  segments  of  nearly  equal 
length,  except  the  first  three  immediately  back  of  the  cephalic  or 
head  segment.  The  first  of  these  is  subquadrate,  or  nearly  of  equal 
width  and  length.  The  two  following  segments  are  each  about 
one-half  the  length  of  the  first  segment.  The  caudal  segment  is 
generally  much  more  flattened  than  the  other  segments  of  the  body. 


76 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

The  body  has  a smooth  and  very  hard  surface,  by  reason  of  which 
the  common  name  “wire  worm”  has  been  suggested.  It  is  sup- 
plied with  six  short,  stout  legs,  three  on  each  side,  and  attached  to 
the  first  three  segments  of  the  body  at  the  rear  of  the  cephalic  seg- 
ment. 

This  general  description  enables  us  to  detect  the  worm  wherever 
it  may  be  found.  The  various  species  may  be  determined  by  certain 
minor  characteristics,  subordinate  to  its  distinguishing  generic 
features. 

The  following  is  a dorsal  view  of  a wire  worm  somewhat  en- 
larged for  convenience  in  production: 


Fig.  1.  Dorsal  view  of  wireworm,  enlarged. 


The  distinguishing  features  of  the  various  species  are  to  be  found 
generally  in  the  color,  the  formation  of  the  various  parts  of  the 
cephalic  segment  and  the  varying  peculiarity  of  the  caudal  segment. 

We  will  give  a description  of  the  two  kinds  received  at  this 
station  from  Garfield  county. 

The  species  of  wireworm  known  as  Melanotus  communis , to  which 
the  larger  portion  of  those  collected  and  forwarded  to  this  Station 
belong,  has  the  general  characteristics  of  the  genus,  of  being  sub- 
cylindrical  in  form,  segmented,  smooth,  hard  and  wire-like,  and 
body  very  sparsely  haired.  The  color,  however,  is  a light  brown, 
with  the  head  and  adjacent  segments  somewhat  darker  and  the  ven- 
tral portion  somewhat  lighter.  The  caudal  segment  probably 
furnishes  the  most  distinguishing  feature  of  this  species.  This 
segment  is  much  flattened  and  concaved,  and  the  sides  are  each 
marked  by  two  depressions  or  notches,  giving  it  a fluted  or  wave- 
like appearance.  This  caudal  segment  ends  in  a short  and  some- 
what blunt  tubercle.  The  dorsal  or  upper  portion  of  the  caudal 
segment  is  marked  by  five  longitudinal  impressions,  four  of  them 
being  nearly  parallel  upon  the  cephalic  portion  of  the  segment, 
while  the  fifth  runs  along  the  middle  of  the  segment,  beginning 
just  below  the  bottom  line  of  the  other  four  and  continuing  to  the 
caudal  extremity  of  the  segment.  The  ventral  or  under  portion  of 
this  segment  is  wrinkled.  Figure  2 is  a dorsal  view  of  the  caudal 
segment  of  this  species. 


77 


Bulletin  If. — May,  189 %. 

The  species  of  wire  worm  known  as  the  Agriotes  mancus,  or  wheat 
wireworm,  and  of  which  a few  were  found  among  the  specimens 


Fig.  2.  Dorsal  view  of  caudal  segment  of  Melanotus  communis,  enlarged. 

sent  us  from  Garfield  county,  has  the  general  characteristics  of  the 
genus,  such  as  the  cylindrical,  segmental  body,  flattened  on  the  ven- 
tral portion,  smooth,  wiry  and  sparsely  haired.  The  color  of  this 
species,  however,  is  a very  light  yellow,  while  its  head  and  caudal 
segments  differ  quite  considerably  from  the  other  species.  The  cau- 
dal segment,  instead  of  possessing  fluted  sides,  tapers  regularly  and 
smoothly  to  a moderately  sharp  point,  which  is  of  a brownish  color. 


Fig.  3.  Dorsal  view  of  caudal  segment  of  the  Agriotes  mancus,  enlarged. 

On  each  side  of  this  segment,  near  its  sutural  conjunction  with  the 
preceding  segment,  is  a very  marked  oblong  depression,  distin- 


78 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


guished  by  a darker  color  than  the  surrounding  surface  of  the  seg- 
ment. From  the  lower  end  of  each  of  these  depressions  is  a short 
longitudinal  line,  and  two  similar  lines  are  located  inward,  equi- 
distant from  each  of  these  oblong  depressions.  Figure  3 is  an  en- 
larged view  of  the  caudal  segment  of  this  species  of  the  wireworm. 

ORIGIN  OF  THE  WIREWORM. 

The  wireworm  is  the  larva,  or  hatch,  of  the  egg  of  a beetle,  com- 
monly known  as  the  click-beetle.  This  is  a small,  brown  or  black 
beetle,  and  is  sometimes  recognized  from  the  fact  that  when  placed 
in  any  unnatural  position  it  regains  its  feet  by  throwing  itself  into 
the  air  by  an  action  of  the  body  which  produces  a short,  sharp, 
clicking  sound.  There  are,  of  course,  many  species  of  click-beetles, 
the  number  being  coextensive  with  the  different  varieties  of  wire- 
worms. 

The  beetle,  generally  speaking,  is  a small  insect,  varying  in  size 
from  an  eighth  to  probably  five-eights  of  an  inch  in  length. 

These  beetles  are  supposed  to  deposit  their  eggs  at  the  spring 
time,  in  the  earth,  where  they  hatch,  producing  the  wireworm. 
When  the  worm  has  lived  its  allotted  time,  variously  estimated  to 
be  from  two  to  five  years,  it  passes  into  a state  of  pupation;  it 
commences  its  transformation  from  life  as  a worm  to  life  as  a ma- 
tured beetle.  In  the  earth  it  makes  a small  oval  cell  in  which  it 
immures  itself,  and  in  a few  weeks  it  molts,  and  out  of  its  wiry 
skin  comes  a soft  white  pupa,  which  in  general  form  resembles  the 
mature  beetle. 

This  process  is  said  to  begin  about  the  first  of  July,  and  that  it 
requires  about  three  weeks  to  effect  the  transformation.  This  in- 
formation is  furnished  upon  observations  made  in  the  eastern  sec- 
tions of  our  country.  There  is  no  reason  to  suppose  that  it  might 
be  different  in  Washington,  but  observations  will  be  carefully 
made  that  our  knowledge  of  the  matter  may  be  perfect.  The 
pupa  soon  after  takes  on  the  form  of  the  matured  beetle,  excepting 
that  at  first  it  is  nearly  white  and  quite  tender,  but  it  soon  matures. 
It  remains  in  the  ground  until  the  ensuing  spring,  when  it  emerges 
again  to  lay  its  eggs,  and  thus  keep  up  the  process  of  reproduction. 

DESTRUCTION  OF  THE  LARWE  AND  THE  BEETLE. 

For  much  of  the  information  now  possessed  concerning  the  life 
and  habits  of  this  pest,  the  agriculturists  of  this  country  are  in- 


Bulletin  — May,  1892. 


79 


debted  to  the  careful  researches  and  valuable  experiments  con- 
ducted by  Prof.  J.  II.  Comstock,  the  entomologist  of  Cornell 
University,  New  York. 

Prof.  Comstock  has  conducted  some  especially  interesting  experi- 
ments with  reference  to  the  destruction  of  the  larvae,  the  pupae  and 
the  mature  beetles,  and  has  arrived  at  conclusions  that  are  note- 
worthy as  being  of  essential  value  to  the  farmers  wherever  the 
wireworm  has  taken  up  its  habitation.  His  experimentation  ex- 
tended over  a period  of  about  three  years,  employing  three  methods 
of  action  — first,  protection  of  the  seed;  second,  destruction  of  the 
larvae,  and  third,  the  destruction  of  the  pupae  and  matured  beetles. 

Under  the  first  head,  the  protection  of  the  seed,  experimentation 
was  made  by  coating  the  seed  with  Paris  green  and  flour,  and  by  a 
coating  of  tar;  also  by  soaking  the  seed  in  solutions  of  salt,  cop- 
peras, chloride  of  lime  and  copperas,  kerosene  oil,  turpentine  and 
strychnine.  Without  going  into  the  specific  results  of  these  ex- 
periments, which,  while  interesting,  would  extend  this  bulletin  un- 
necessarily, we  will  say  that  none  of  the  processes  employed  were 
successful  in  preventing  the  worms  from  attacking  the  seed. 

Under  the  second  head,  the  destruction  of  larvae,  or  worms,  ex- 
perimentation was  made  by  the  process  of  starvation,  but  it  was 
found  that  the  worms  would  remain  healthy  and  active  for  eighteen 
months  (and  how  much  longer  it  is  not  known,  as  the  experiment 
was  not  continued  beyond  that  period)  in  soil  where  there  was  no 
growing  vegetation.  Destruction  was  also  attempted  by  the  use  of 
insecticides,  both  by  substances  that  act  merely  as  insecticides  and 
substances  that  act  as  fertilizers  and  incidently  as  insecticides,  but 
both  were  without  avail. 

Then  the  destruction  of  the  pupae  and  the  mature  beetles  was 
attempted,  first  by  fall  plowing  the  ground,  and  second  by  trapping. 
The  former  method  was  intended  especially  for  the  pupae,  and  the 
latter  for  the  click-beetl*es.  The  experiment  of  ridding  the  fields 
of  the  pupae  and  the  beetles  by  these  methods  has  proven  in  a large 
degree  successful. 

It  has  been  ascertained  that  after  the  worm  commences  the  pro- 
cess of  pupation  he  looses  his  power  of  action  as  a worm,  and  the 
slightest  disturbance  or  interference  will  operate  to  destroy  him. 
This  is  likewise  true  of  the  pupa  and  of  the  young  beetle.  As- 
suming that  the  worm  commences  to  pupate  on  July  1st,  it  is 
reasonably  sure  that  any  reasonable  disturbance  of  the  earth  in 


80 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


which  the  cell  is  located  up  to  perhaps  the  first  of  October  will  de- 
stroy a large  proportion  of  the  pupae  and  young  beetles.  It  is 
recommended  that  the  ground  be  not  only  plowed  but  that  it  be 
frequently  stirred  and  also  rolled,  as  the  worms  do  not  thrive  so 
well  in  soil  that  is  compact. 

The  process  of  trapping  the  mature  beetles  has  also  proven  very 
successful,  the  best  baits  used  being  wads  of  green  clover  and  pieces 
of  cornmeal  dough  sweetened  with  sugar.  It  was  afterward  ascer- 
tained that  by  dipping  these  baits  into  Paris  green  water  and  plac- 
ing them  under  boards  in  various  parts  of  the  field  that  the  beetles 
were  readily  poisoned,  thus  saving  the  labor  of  collecting  them  from 
the  traps. 

It  is  therefore  suggested  that  these  methods  of  prevention  and 
destruction,  so  carefully  worked  out  by  Prof.  Comstock,  be  em- 
ployed by  the  farmers  in  Washington,  as  they  will  undoubtedly 
prove  the  most  effectual  treatment  that  can  be  used,  unless  it  be 
found  that  the  habits  and  operations  of  this  pest  are  much  different 
here  than  in  other  parts  of  the  country.  The  latter  is  hardly  pos- 
sible. 

In  the  meantime  we  request  that  farmers  forward  to  this  Station 
specimens  of  beetles  and  worms,  that  they  may  be  more  fully  studied 
with  reference  to  their  life  and  habits,  and  also  transmit  the  result 
of  any  observations  that  may  have  been  made  regarding  them. 

All  express  charges  or  postage,  or  other  actual  expense  incurred 
in  forwarding  specimens,  will  be  paid  by  the  Station. 

J.  O’B.  Scobey,  Agriculturist. 


v 


STATE  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE  AND 
SCHOOL  OF  SCIENCE. 


Experiment  Station, 

PULLMAN,  WASHINGTON. 


Bulletin  5. 


REPORT  OF  FARMERS’  INSTITUTE  HELD  AT  POMEROY, 
WASHINGTON. 


MAY,  1892. 


OLYMPIA,  WASH.: 

O.  C.  WHITE,  . . . STATE  PRINTER. 

1892. 


• y,t 


2*S^V4i<v  v 


-•  •-'■“••;  »*'  - i-c~  /- •-  - './ 

f- 

V?i’--«ii^n.v<.-'.'vf'.'r  ^vsc&kc 


STATE  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE  AND 
SCHOOL  OF  SCIENCE. 


Experiment  Station, 

PULLMAN,  WASHINGTON. 


Bulletin  5. 


REPORT  OF  FARMERS’  INSTITUTE  HELD  AT  POMEROY, 
WASHINGTON. 


MAY,  1892. 


OLYMPIA,  WASH.: 

O.  C.  WHITE,  . . . STATE  PRINTER. 

1892. 


For  Catalogues  of  the  College,  information  in  relation  to  the  courses 
of  instruction,  and  Bulletins  of  the  Station,  address  President  Lilley. 


STATION  OFFICERS. 


BOARD  OF  REGENTS. 


Hon.  S.  B.  Conover,  President , Port  Townsend. 

Andrew  H.  Smith,  Treasurer , Tacoma. 

Hon.  Eugene  J.  Fellows, Spokane. 

J.  H.  Bellinger, Colfax. 

George  W.  Hopp, Sedro. 

Gov.  E.  P.  Ferry,  ex  officio  Advisory  Member , Olympia. 

George  Lilley,  Secretary, Pullman. 


STATION  STAFF. 

George  Lilley,  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D., 

Director. 

John  O’B.  Scobey,  A.  M., 
Agriculturist. 

Edward  R.  Lake,  M.  Sc., 

Horticulturist  and  Botanist. 

George  G.  Hitchcock,  A.  B., 
Chemist. 

Charles  E.  Munn,  V.  S., 
Veterinarian. 


ASSISTANTS. 

Edward  J.  Cheatham, 
Foreman  of  the  Farm. 

Nathan  Woodbeck, 
Elmer  Sparr, 
Teamsters. 

E.  Quimby  Merriman, 

Mailing  Clerk. 


REPORT  OF  FARMERS’  INSTITUTE, 

HELD  AT  POMEROY,  WASH.,  MAY  15,  1892. 


The  third  institute  of  the  present  series  was  held  at  Pom- 
eroy, Garfield  county,  Saturday,  May  15.  President  Lilley 
called  the  meeting  together,  and  stated  the  object  of  the  meeting 
to  be  that  of  discussing  the  various  subjects  of  interest  to  the 
farmer  and  fruit  grower,  and  also  to  explain  the  objects  and 
workings  of  the  College  and  bring  the  College  faculty  in  close 
touch  and  sympathy  with  the  industrial  interest  and  people  of 
the  entire  state. 

Upon  motion,  Rev.  L.  J.  Whitcomb  was  elected  chairman, 
and  G.  F.  Jackson,  secretary. 

The  orchestra  then  rendered  a choice  selection,  after  which 
President  Lilley  spoke  as  follows : 

STATE  AID  FOR  THE  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE. 

The  legislature  of  the  state  has  at  all  times  shown  a disposition 
to  meet  the  requirements  of  the  federal  government  in  locating  its 
Agricultural  College. 

It  has  passed  laws  for  the  erection  and  equipment  of  suitable 
buildings  in  which  to  conduct  the  work  of  the  College. 

It  has  provided  for  obtaining  land  on  which  to  erect  buildings 
and  conduct  the  experimental  work  of  the  Government  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station.  These  questions  received  the  attention  of  the 
first  legislature  of  your  state. 

This  session  passed  a law,  approved  March  28,  1890,  providing 
for  the  appointment  of  a “commission  of  technical  instruction,” 
consisting  of  three  members;  it  also  provided  for  the  organization 


86 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station . 


of  the  College.  By  the  terms  of  this  act  the  commission  was  re- 
quired to  select  a location  for  the  College  previous  to  the  first  day 
of  June,  1890. 

Owing  to  the  inability  of  the  commission  to  agree  on  a suitable 
location,  this  law  became  nugatory.  Had  this  law  gone  into  effect, 
and  had  the  College  been  promptly  and  properly  organized  during 
the  summer  of  1890,  the  state  would  have  received,  under  the  pro- 
visions of  the  “Hatch”  and. “Morrill ’’  acts,  forty-six  thousand 
dollars  from  the  general  government  in  addition  to  what  it  is  now 
receiving  from  it. 

Thus  it  became  necessary  to  legislate  again  on  this  subject.  This 
was  done  by  the  second  and  last  session  of  the  legislature,  which 
promptly  passed  an  act,  approved  March  9,  1891,  providing  for 
the  location,  support  arid  improvement  of  the  State  Agricultural 
College. 

By  the  terms  of  this  act  the  state  accepted  all  the  conditions  and 
endowments  of  the  federal  government,  as  required  by  congress. 

The  appropriation  act  for  the  expenses  of  state  government, 
passed  by  the  last  session  and  approved  March  1,  1891,  provides  as 
follows: 

“For  the  Agricultural  College,  Experiment  Station  and  School 
of  Science,  sixty  thousand  dollars  ($60,000):  Provided , The  amount 
herein  appropriated  should  be  returned  to  the  state  treasury  from  the 
proceeds  of  the  first  sale  of  lands  donated  to  the  state  for  the  Agri- 
cultural College,  Experiment  Station  and  School  of  Science.” 
Owing  to  technicalities  and  litigation  this  money  has  not  been 
available  until  recently. 

It  is  evident,  by  the  terms  of  the  clause  quoted,  that  the  intent  of 
the  legislature  is  to  have  this  money  returned  to  the  state  from 
the  • first  appropriation  made  by  the  general  government  for  that 
purpose. 

This  money  is  being  used  to  pay  the  expenses  of  erecting  and 
completing  a dormitory  and  also  a building  to  be  used  for  class 
rooms,  assembly  hall,  laboratory,  museum,  library  and  office.  Sub- 
sequently this  building  will  be  used  for  department  work. 

We  shall  also  complete,  for  temporary  use,  a one-story  rustic 
wooden  building  of  ample  dimensions  to  accommodate  our  stu- 
dents in  shop  work  with  wood  and  metals,  and  for  power  house. 

At  present  we  are  using,  for  class  rooms,  a one-story  brick  build- 
ing thirty-six  by  sixty  feet.  This  building  has  been  completed  and 


Bulletin  5. — May,  1892. 


87 


paid  for  out  of  this  appropriation  at  an  expense  of  fifteen  hundred 
dollars. 

The  only  other  expenses  besides  the  erection  and  furnishing  of 
buildings  for  the  purposes  of  instruction  and  dormitory  use,  to  be 
paid  out  of  this  appropriation,  are  the  expenses  of  heating,  regent 
expenses  and  per  diem  bills,  and  incidental  expenses. 

Since  the  first  day  of  last  March  it  has  not  been  necessary,  owing 
to  securing  the  government  appropriations  for  that  purpose,  to  take 
any  part  of  this  appropriation  for  the  payment  of  teachers’  salaries, 
and  before  that  date  only  a small  amount,  less  than  two  thousand 
dollars,  had  been  used  for  that  purpose.  This  sum  will  cover  the 
entire  amount  paid  by  the  state,  from  this  appropriation,  in  salaries 
to  the  present  faculty. 

The  government  appropriations  provide  means  for  payment  of 
our  teachers  and  professors  which  are  entirely  independent  of 
state  aid. 

The  dormitory  is  one  hundred  and  four  feet  in  length,  with  a front- 
age of  fifty-seven  feet  and  a rear  of  forty-five  feet.  It  is  built  with 
brick,  and  the  best  of  Washington  material  is  used  in  its  construc- 
tion. It  is  five  stories  in  height,  including  a basement  and  an  attic. 

It  will  be  lighted  with  electricity  and  heated  throughout  with 
steam,  and  each  floor  will  be  provided  with  closets,  bath  rooms 
and  water. 

The  basement  consists  of  a dining  hall  forty-one  by  forty-two 
feet,  a kitchen  twenty-six  by  twenty  feet,  a pantry  and  china  closet 
twenty  by  sixteen  feet,  a storeroom  ten  by  sixteen  feet,  and  two 
suits  of  rooms  consisting  of  a living  and  sleeping  room,  each 
twenty-seven  by  twenty  feet. 

The  four  remaining  floors  will  be  provided  with  thirty-two  suits 
of  rooms,  each  consisting  of  a study  and  two  sleeping  rooms. 
Eight  study  rooms  are  twenty-three  by  ten  feet  each,  with  bed- 
rooms ten  by  ten  feet.  Twenty-four  study  rooms  are  eighteen  by 
eight  feet  each,  with  bedrooms  nine  by  eight  feet.  Each  suit  is 
also  provided  with  closets. 

Each  suit  will  be  furnished  with  bedsteads,  wire  mattresses, 
chairs,  study  table,  and  washstands. 

The  students  will  be  required  to  furnish  bedding,  towels,  wash- 
bowl and  pitcher,  and  carpet,  if  desired. 

The  dining  hall  and  kitchen  will  be  provided  and  fully  equipped 


88 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station . 


for  preparing,  cooking  and  serving  food,  and  also  for  giving  instruc- 
tion to  young  women  in  some  branches  of  domestic  sciences. 

A gravity  system  of  water  works  is  now  being  completed,  in  con- 
nection with  the  experiment  station,  which  will  furnish  an  abun- 
dance of  pure  artesian  water  for  use  throughout  the  buildings. 

The  expenses  of  maintaining  the  institution  are  largely  supplied 
by  the  general  government,  and  as  it  is  a state  institution  and  be- 
longs to  the  people,  they  should  not,  therefore,  be  required  to 
individually  pay  for  the  advantages  it  has  to  offer.  Tuition  and 
room  rent  is  free  to  each  student  who  is  a resident  of  the  state. 

DISCUSSION. 

Mr.  Mays:  Can  students  arrange  to  board  and  room  in  clubs, 

thereby  lessening  expenses? 

President  Lilley:  Yes. 

Rev.  Whitcomb:  What  preparation  is  required  for  admission 

to  the  college  courses  of  instruction? 

President  Lilley:  A good  knowledge  of  the  common  school 
branches,  consisting  of  arithmetic,  English  grammar,  spelling, 
physiology,  penmanship,  geography,  reading  and  United  States  his- 
tory, is  required  before  entering  the  first  year  of  the  College  courses. 

Any  person  not  less  than  fifteen  years  of  age,  of  good  character, 
may  be  admitted  to  the  College  classes,  in  so  far  as  his  previous 
preparation  fits  him. 

We  have  a preparatory  department,  consisting  of  a one  year’s 
course  of  instruction,  connected  with  the  College,  in  which  a student 
may  review  the  common  school  branches  and  obtain  a good  common 
school  education,  in  case  he  is  not  sufficiently  advanced  to  enter  the 
College  classes.  Any  person  fourteen  years  of  age,  and  who  under- 
stands arithmetic  through  fractions;  who  can  distinguish  the  parts 
of  speech;  who  can  read,  write  and  spell  reasonably  well,  and  who 
is  well  grounded  in  the  geography  of  the  United  States,  can  enter 
this  course. 

Rev.  Whitcomb:  What  is  the  apportionment  for  the  several 
counties,  and  especially  for  Garfield  county? 

President  Lilley:  There  is  no  apportionment;  it  is  free  to  all 
alike. 


Bulletin  5. — May,  1892. 


89 


The  following  papers  were  then  read  by  the  several  members 
of  the  station  staff: 

FARM  RESOURCES. 

J.  o’b.  scobey. 


Should  I undertake  to  cover  the  entire  field  opened  by  the  sub- 
ject of  this  paper,  I much  fear  that  it  would  require  more  time  than 
is  allotted  me.  I shall  confine  my  suggestions  principally  to  one 
item  of  resource  upon  the  farm. 

This  northwestern  State  of  Washington  is  a most  wonderful 
country.  The  more  one  contemplates  and  studies  it,  the  more  does 
its  great  value  as  a wealth  producing  section  impress  itself  upon 
the  mind.  Its  resources  are  limitless.  The  state  by  a natural  bar- 
rier is  divided  into  two  sections,  in  one  of  which  the  principal 
industries  are  lumbering,  mining,  the  fisheries,  fruit  and  dairy 
farming,  while  the  other  section  is  devoted  very  largely  to  general 
agriculture,  fruit  raising  and  dairying  being  included  under  such 
general  term.  While  lumbering  is  at  present  the  main  industry  of 
the  western  division  of  the  state,  wheat  growing  constitutes  the 
principal  crop  of  the  portion  east  of  the  Cascades.  Among  the 
very  few  things  that  we  may  say  are  common  to  the  entire  state, 
to  both  of  the  divisions  I have  mentioned,  is  the  dairy  industry. 
It  is,  therefore,  one  of  the  pursuits  in  which  all  the  people  should 
have  an  interest. 

The  dairy  industry  has  made  more  rapid  improvement  in  the  last 
few  years  than  probably  any  other  branch  of  agriculture.  In  what 
a few  years  ago  were  our  principal  grain  growing  and  flour  produc- 
ing states,  the  sound  of  the  sickle  is  now  practically  hushed,  while 
the  “lowing  herd  winds  slowly  o’er  the  lea”  to  nearly  every  farm 
yard  in  those  states.  The  ceaseless  march  of  empire  from  east  to 
west  has  been  no  more  certain  than  has  the  western  advance  of  the 
cow,  and  we  can  truthfully  say  that  the  latter  has  camped  each 
night  upon  the  trail  of  the  former,  and  while  the  cow  has  always 
kept,  or  rather  been  kept,  by  her  unwise  master,  well  to  the  rear  of 
the  advancing  column  of  American  progress  and  civilization,  she 
has  always  sent  forage  on  ahead  to  those  who  have  left  her  behind. 
To-day  she  is  performing  that  kind  office  for  the  State  of  Washing- 
ton. From  her  prairie  home  in  Iowa,  Minnesota  and  Wisconsin, 


90 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


she  is  supplying  thousands  of  tables  in  Washington  with  her  delici- 
ous products,  and  like  Iowa,  Minnesota  and  Wisconsin  very  fool- 
ishly did  when  the  cows  of  Illinois,  Indiana  and  Michigan  were 
supplying  them  with  butter  and  cheese,  we  are  annually  digging 
away  at  our  soil,  wearing  it  out  with  the  utmost  certainty,  raising 
wheat  to  sell  to  get  money  to  send  back  and  buy  the  dairy  pro- 
ducts of  those  states.  In  due  course  of  time  we  shall  find  out  just 
as  Iowa  did  that  it  don’t  pay;  that  there  is  more  money  in  the 
dairy  than  in  the  wheat  field,  and  instead  of  wearing  out  our  lands, 
we  can  by  dairying  make  them  more  fertile. 

Dairying  is  probably  the  most  profitable  branch  of  agriculture. 
It  is  not  the  easiest,  at  least  to  one  who  is  a stranger  to  the  business. 
To  one  who  places  a premium  upon  intelligence,  the  work  of  the 
dairy  soon  becomes  a lighter  burden  than  the  labor  attached  to 
wheat  raising.  To  be  sure,  it  requires  the  exercise  of  a certain 
amount  and  a certain  grade  of  intelligence  to  raise  wheat. 

A man  to  raise  wheat  must  know  how  to  plow.  Then  he  must 
be  able  to  remember  from  one  year  to  another  how  much  seed  he 
should  sow  per  acre;  and  in  a country  where  they  raise  as  much 
smut  as  they  do  wheat  he  must  know,  or  learn,  how  to  treat  his 
seed  to  keep  the  smut  out.  Then  he  should  be  able  to  drive  a 
seeder  middling  straight  over  a hill,  say  one  hundred  feet  high, 
have  something  of  a knowledge  of  the  intricacies  of  a twine  binder 
and  know  the  road  to  market  in  the  fall,  and  he  will  make  a fair 
hand  at  raising  wheat. 

It  requires  a higher  grade  and  a larger  degree  of  intelligence 
than  this  to  make  butter.  But  then,  as  I said  before,  it  pays  bet- 
ter. 

The  man  who  takes  his  ax  into  the  woods  and  chops  down  trees 
and, cuts  them  into  saw-log  lengths,  commands,  as  a wage,  from  one 
to  two  dollars  per  day.  He  who  squares  the  timber  and  saws  it 
into  boards  and  blocks  is  better  paid,  because  he  has  brought  to  his 
work  more  and  a higher  grade  of  intelligence;  but  he  who  takes  the 
board  or  the  block  and  lays  out  upon  it  designs,  which  with  a skilled 
and  deft  hand  he  carves  into  imitation  flowers  so  perfect  as  to  re- 
mind us  of  sweet  perfumes,  into  forms  of  birds  that  disappoint  us 
that  they  do  not  sing,  into  images  which  surprise  us  that  they  can- 
not speak,  is  the  one  whose  compensation  is  limited  only  by  the 
means  of  those  who  are  lovers  of  beauty,  of  art  and  of  intelligence. 


Bulletin  5. — May , 1892. 


91 


So  it  is  with  all  labor.  The  most  skilled  and  the  most  intelligent 
always  command  the  highest  price. 

Now,  I do  not  want  the  members  of  this  institute  to  believe  that 
I have  no  regard  for  wheat  or  the  wheat  grower.  I know  that  it 
was  inevitable  that  it  should  be  the  first  principal  crop  of  this  new 
country,  and  it  is  inevitable  that  it  will  be  the  main  crop  for  some 
time  to  come.  We  are  growing  about  twenty  varieties  of  it  now 
upon  the  College  farm,  and  I have  complained  a great  deal  because 
we  have  not  more  land  under  cultivation  to  sow  to  wheat.  We  are 
thus  experimenting  with  this  crop  because  we  know  of  this  inevit- 
able, and  we  want  to  assist  in  making  it  as  good  a crop  as  possible 
while  it  is  grown  here  extensively. 

But  I know  another  thing,  and  that  is,  it  is  a “lazy  man’s  crop.” 
I have  grown  many  a crop  of  it  myself. 

Now,  what  I most  desire  is  to  impress  upon  the  minds  of  the 
farmers  of  this  country,  and  particularly  those  of  you  who  are  here 
permanently,  with  fixed  homes  that  will  be  your  abiding  places  for 
many  years  or  so  long  as  you  may  live,  that  it  will  be  necessary  to 
turn  to  the  dairy  for  support  and  for  a competency.  This  country 
will  not  raise  wheat  always,  any  more  than  any  other  country  will, 
and  I want  to  get  the  people  to  thinking  about  the  questions  of 
good  dairy  cattle,  good  milk,  good  cream,  good  butter,  good  cheese 
and  good  profits.  Every  extra  dollar  earned  by  a farmer  in  this 
country  or  paid  by  a consumer  for  a product  made  here  which  he  is 
now  buying  abroad,  is  a dollar  added  to  the  wealth  of  the  state. 

I have  not  come  here  to-day  to  discuss  methods,  or  the  details  of 
butter  making.  I have  come  here  to  try  and  create  an  interest  in 
this  subject  of  dairying,  to  ask  you  practical  farmers  why  it  is  not 
practicable  in  this  section,  and  why  we  cannot  even  this  year  begin 
to  prepare  for  it,  and  to  improve  our  stock  and  our  advantages,  so 
that  instead  of  buying  the  products  of  foreign  herds,  this  country 
may  soon  be  enjoying  the  balance  of  trade  in  that  line  in  its  own 
favor. 

DISCUSSION. 

Mr.  Kimes:  The  great  drawback  to  dairying  in  this  section  is 
a lack  of  pasturage.  If  some  one  will  give  us  a grass  that  will  en- 
dure our  long  summer  drouths,  we  can  carry  on  this  industry  here 
with  fair  profits.  With  our  native  grasses  as  they  are  found  on 
the  ranges  to-day,  it  takes  about  fifteen  acres  to  keep  one  cow. 
We  want  an  evergreen  grass  or  some  other  summer  forage  crop. 


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Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station . 


Professor  Scobey:  What  cultivated  grasses  have  you  tried? 

Mr.  Kimes:  Several  species  have  been  tried.  Among  them  we 
find  that  timothy  and  clover  will  not  stand  the  drouths.  Several 
others  have  been  tried  with  varying  results,  but  in  no  instance 
very  promising. 

Professor  Scobey:  At  the  College  we  have  about  twenty  va- 
rieties which  were  sown  this  last  spring,  and  we  shall  make  an 
effort  to  find  the  grass  especially  needed  for  this  section  — the  sum- 
mer forage  crop. 

Mr.  Davidson:  It  is  my  opinion  that  we  need  a market  more 
than  a forage  crop.  At  present  we  have  not  a staple  market,  and 
when  butter  drops  from  thirty-five  to  twenty  cents  per  pound,  the 
average  farmer  finds  too  little  profit  in  its  production,  and  conse- 
quently the  home  supply  gets  down  to  a very  small,  and  probably 
a negative  quantity.  But  if  some  one  will  insure  us  a good  market, 
we  will  find  pasturage  and  produce  plenty  of  butter. 

Professor  Scobey:  From  what  I have  been  able  to  learn,  there 
seems  to  be  no  reason  why  there  should  not  be  a ready  market  for 
all  the  choice  butter  that  can  be  reasonably  produced  in  this  section. 
Tacoma  dealers  are  obliged  to  go  east  of  the  Rockies  for  butter  in 
quantity.  They  cannot  afford  to  set  up  buyers  in  a section  where 
only  a few  tubs  of  butter  can  be  had.  They  must  have  car  load 
lots,  and  when  this  section  can  furnish  good  prime  butters  in  such 
quantities  there  will  be  plenty  of  buyers  here  eager  to  get  the 
product  of  your  dairies.  The  people  of  Pullman  are  obliged  to 
pay  from  forty  cents  to  fifty  cents  per  pound  for  nearly  all  the 
butter  they  consume,  which  comes  from  Iowa  and  Wisconsin.  It 
is  the  same  in  the  other  towns  of  this  section,  if  the  local  papers 
and  merchants  are  to  be  relied  on.  Why  is  not  the  local  produc- 
tion sufficient  for  this  local  trade,  to  say  the  least? 

Mr.  Kimes:  One  reason  why  no  more  butter  is  shipped  is,  that 
we  are  not  able  to  get  butter  firkins  at  any  reasonable  figures.  Our 
merchants  here  don’t  care  to  get  them  for  us,  and  we  can’t  ship  in 
crocks. 

Professor  Scobey:  When  once  the  dairy  industry  is  well  under 
way  in  this  section,  creameries  will  be  established;  the  product 
will  be  of  a uniform  grade,  and  in  this  way  at  much  less  expense 
for  labor  and  machinery  a fine  grade  of  butter  will  be  produced, 


Bulletin  5. — May,  189 2. 


93 


which  may  be  shipped  direct  from  the  creameries  to  the  market 
centers  of  our  coast  and  this  great  northwest. 

Mr.  Davis:  What  breeds  would  you  recommend  for  dairying? 

Professor  Scobey:  This  is  a difficult  question  to  answer,  as 
even  the  best  of  our  dairymen  differ  in  opinion.  I prefer  the  Jersey 
or  Holstein.  One  may  not  be  able  to  begin  with  a full  blood  Jersey 
or  Holstein  herd,  but  by  introducing  a few  head  of  pure  stock  the 
herd  may  soon  be  graded  up. 


AZOTURIA. 


DR.  C.  E.  MUNN. 


Azoturia  is  a disease  which  has  been  quite  common  in  this  coun- 
try during  the  past  few  months,  and,  as  it  usually  attacks  horses  of 
the  better  grade,  we  will  attempt  to  give  a brief  description  of  its 
nature,  causes  and  symptoms,  with  a practical  method  of  treatment, 
and  that  which  is  of  more  value  to  the  average  horse  owner,  its 
prevention. 

I will  begin  with  a description  of  the  symptoms  of  the  disease. 
In  nearly  all  cases  the  animal  attacked  is  one  in  good  fora*  and 
fine  condition,  generally  one  that  has  had  regular  work  or  exercise, 
but  for  some  reason  has  been  kept  up  for  a day  or  two,  or  even 
longer,  and  during  confinement  given  the  same  quantity  and  quality 
of  food  as  when  at  work  He  is  brought  out  after  this  period  of 
rest  and  put  to  work,  or,  at  least,  started,  for  although  he  starts 
out  feeling  and  appearing  in  the  best  of  health  and  vigor,  he  may 
not  proceed  more  than  a hundred  yards,  or  perhaps  a mile  or  two, 
before  he  will  show  symptoms  of  some  trouble  in  the  muscles  of 
locomotion.  If  affected  in  a mild  form,  there  may  be  a slight 
lameness  of  one  limb,  generally  one  of  the  hind  legs;  he  has  lost 
the  vigor  which  was  noticeable  when  he  started  out,  and  appears 
dull  and  lifeless,  and,  if  forced  to  proceed,  the  symptoms  become 
rapidly  worse.  In  the  more  severe  cases  the  lameness  is  increased 
and  the  affected  animal  may  even  lose  entire  control  of  the  posterior 
extremities,  and  when  forced  to  move  a few  steps  reels  and  falls  to 
the  ground,  giving  the  impression  to  one  not  familiar  with  the  dis- 
ease that  he  has  in  some  manner  injured  his  back.  Other  cases 


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Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


show  symptoms  of  colic,  together  with  trembling  and  twitching  of 
the  larger  muscles,  more  especially  those  over  the  the  rump  and 
loins.  In  nearly  all  cases  there  is  a discharge  of  dark  coffee-colored 
urine.  In  the  more  serious  cases  the  animal  refuses  to  eat  or  drink. 
In  the  milder  forms  the  appetite  is  not  impaired.  The  more  severe 
cases  may  terminate  fatally  in  from  two  to  three  days,  but  if  the 
animal  has  not  been  allowed,  to  exert  himself  after  the  first  symp- 
toms have  been  discovered,  and  is  properly  treated,  a quick  recovery 
may  be  expected,  except  in  the  more  serious  cases.  In  slow  recov- 
eries loss  of  power  may  occur  in  the  hind  extremities  which  may 
last  for  some  time,  and  there  may  be  extensive  wasting  of  the 
muscles  between  the  stifle  and  hip  joints. 

The  cause  of  this  disease  is  without  a doubt  dietetic.  An  ab- 
normal amount  of  nitrogenous  or  albuminous  material  is  taken  into 
the  system;  the  supply  appears  to  exceed  the  demand,  and  not  be- 
ing utilized,  remains  in  the  circulation,  chemical  changes  occur 
caused  more  especially  by  exercise,  producing  something  of  the 
nature  of  a poison  to  the  nervous  system,  and  affecting  the  larger 
masses  of  voluntary  muscular  tissue. 

The  treatment  should  be  to  remove  as  quickly  as  possible  the 
cause.  In  mild  cases,  a laxative  — as  a small  dose  of  aloes- — and 
bran  mashes  with  about  one  ounce  of  nitrate  of  potash  per  day. 
In  mdre  severe  cases,  a full  dose  of  aloes,  from  six  to  eight  drams, 
and  every  five  or  six  hours  two  or  three  drams  of  bromide  of  pot- 
ash, with  one  ounce  of  spirits  of  niter  to  calm  nervous  excitement 
and  stimulate  the  kidneys  to  action.  Fomentations  of  warm  water 
over  the  loins,  or  thick  woolen  cloths  wrung  out  of  hot  water,  give 
great  relief  and  favor  secretion  of  the  kidneys.  In  those  cases 
where  the  animal  is  unable  to  stand,  he  should  be  given  plenty  of 
good  bedding  and  turned  from  one  side  to  the  other  three  or  four 
times  each  day,  and  after  three  or  four  days  from  the  beginning  of 
the  attack,  should  be  helped  up  if  possible  and  kept  standing 
twenty  or  thirty  minutes,  two  or  three  times  during  the  day. 

During  recovery  care  should  be  taken  not  to  over  feed  and 
thereby  disturb  the  digestive  organs.  Medicines  to  tone  up  the 
system,  as  nox  vomica,  one-half  dram,  with  j>owdered  gentian,  two 
drams,  should  be  given  two  or  three  times  every  day. 

As  it  is  evident  that  plenty  of  nutritious  food  and  lack  of  exer- 
cise produce  this  disorder,  we  may  reasonably  expect  to  avoid  it  by 
care  in  feeding  animals  in  high  condition  when  off  duty,  and  to 


Bulletin  5. — May,  1892. 


95 


give  gentle  exercise  before  starting  in  at  work  after  having  been 
idle  for  a day  or  more.  A horse  that  has  had  one  attack  should 
never  be  without  exercise  even  for  one  day,  and  a restriction  of 
diet  is  often  necessary. 

DISCUSSION. 

Mr.  Thomas:  At  what  age  are  horses  most  liable  to  this  dis- 
ease? 

Dr.  Munn:  Young  horses  that  are  growing  and  aged  horses  are 
comparatively  free  from  it.  Horses  that  have  matured  and  are  in 
good  health  and  condition  are  the  ones  commonly  affected. 

Mr.  Walker:  Are  mares  more  liable  than  male  horses? 

Dr.  Minn:  It  is  claimed  by  some  authorities  that  it  is  a disease 
peculiar  to  mares,  but  that  has  not  been  my  experience,  and  I be- 
lieve that  under  the  same  conditions  of  food  and  exercise  one  sex 
is  as  subject  to  the  disease  as  the  other. 

Mr.  Johnson:  Does  it  ever  happen  as  an  epidemic? 

Dr.  Munn:  It  never  has  in  my  experience;  although  I have  had 
a number  of  cases  occur  in  a single  stable  and  at  the  same  time, 
simply  because  all  were  placed  under  the  same  conditions,  receiving 
rich  food  and  not  enough  exercise. 

Mr.  Mason:  Can  a horse  be  worked  out  of  the  trouble  after  the 
first  symptoms  are  exhibited? 

Dr.  Munn:  It  should  not  be  attempted,  for  continued  exertion 
almost  invariably  increases  the  severity  of  the  symptoms. 

Professor  Scobey:  Would  some  kinds  of  grain  tend  more  to  in- 
duce this  disease  than  others? 

Dr.  Munn:  Yes.  Highly  nitrogenous  grains  will  bring  on 
trouble  in  this  direction  sooner  than  lower  grade  grain. 


After  music  by  the  orchestra,  the  Hon.  F.  W.  D.  Mays  spoke 
as  follows: 

THE  FARMERS’  SONS  THE  HOPE  OF  OUR  COUNTRY. 

Mr.  Chairman,  Ladies  and  Gentlemen  — It  affords  me  great 
pleasure  in  an  impromptu  way  to  call  attention  to  the  fact  that  the 
most  potent  factors  and  most  conservative  element  in  the  body  po- 
litic of  the  past  and  of  to-day,  have  been,  and  are,  the  influence 


96 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


wielded  by  the  sons  of  farmers.  I suppose  the  students  of  history 
will  not  dispute  this  assertion  when  they  recall  the  names  of  Wash- 
ington and  Lincoln,  besides  a host  of  others  that  could  be  men- 
tioned. By  reference  to  the  work  and  deeds  of  the  sons  of  the 
farmhouse  of  the  past,  I am  warranted  in  assuming  that  the  farm- 
ers’ sons  are  the  hope  of  our  country  for  the  future.  In  boyhood  I 
climbed  the  same  hills  over  which  George  Washington  played  and 
romped  in  his  early  life,  and  where  in  later  years,  after  he  was 
called  from  the  plow  to  serve  his  country,  he  led  the  continental 
armies  to  victory  over  the  most  formidable  foe  of  his  day.  It  is 
not  possible  for  any  of  the  epochs  of  history  made  since  the  days 
of  Washington,  or  to  be  made  in  the  future,  to  eclipse  or  detract 
from  the  lustre  of  his  name  or  deface  the  bright  halo  of  glory  that 
will  forever  wreath  his  brow  and  shine  about  his  head  at  the  men- 
tion of  his  name. 

The  late  great  civil  war,  for  the  emancipation  of  American 
slavery,  would  have  been  a failure  but  for  calling  Abraham  Lin- 
coln, the  rail-splitter,  who  followed  the  plow  barefoot  in  his  youth, 
to  guide  the  ship  of  state  in  those  perilous  times  when  brother  was 
arrayed  against  brother  contending  for  what  both  believed  to  be 
liberty  under  the  constitution. 

The  youth  of  our  cities,  as  a rule,  so  impair  their  mental  abilities 
and  degrade  their  manhood  by  evil  habits,  that  they  unfit  them- 
selves for  successful  leaders  in  great  emergencies;  and  when  these 
arise,  some  farmer’s  son  who  has  brawn  as  well  as  brain  is  neces- 
sarily called,  as  was  General  Jackson,  from  the  farm,  to  lead  our 
armies  to  victory,  and  as  Lincoln  was  to  guide  the  ship  of  state. 

Time  would  fail  me  to  cite  instances  in  proof  of  the  position  I 
claim  for  the  farmer’s  son  in  history,  and  I declare  that  his  services 
will  be  more  indispensable  in  the  future,  since  our  city  life,  espe- 
cially in  the  great  marts  of  our  country,  are  such  as  to  inspire  little 
hope  of  a high  type  of  manhood  to  be  developed  in  the  youth  of 
these  centers  of  population,  where  exist  the  vices  of  city  life. 

The  inauguration  of  the  present  system  of  our  agricultural  col- 
leges and  schools  of  science  open  a bright  page  in  the  history  of 
our  country  that  augurs  well  for  the  future.  It  is  now  possible  for 
almost  every  son  and  daughter  of  our  farmers  to  drink  deep  at  the 
fountain  of  knowledge  which  flows  through  these  schools,  and  be 
thereby  prepared  and  fitted  for  duty  in  any  emergency  to  direct 
which  our  country’s  needs  may  call  them.  And  let  me  say  in  con- 


Bulletin  5. — May,  1892. 


97 


elusion,  that  not  the  least  among  these  potent  factors  stands  our 
State  Agricultural  College,  so  ably  presided  over  by  its  present  fac- 
ulty of  aggressive,  energetic  and  able  instructors. 


TREES  AND  TREE  GROWTH. 

E.  R.  LAKE 

To  the  dweller  in  this  region  of  treeless  wheat  fields,  trees  have 
a thousand  attractions  unknown  to  him  who  passes  his  daily  life 
among  forest  monarchs  of  many  species,  though  the  latter  may  not 
in  the  least  underrate  their  value.  How  refreshing  the  shade  of 
trees  none  but  he  who  longs  for  it,  yet  cannot  avail  himself  of  it, 
can  truly  estimate.  How  agreeable  the  leeward  side  of  even  a 
narrow  windbreak  is,  can  only  be  told  by  him  who  has  faced  a Pa- 
louse  wind  for  several  hours  and  then  been  relieved  for  a short 
time  by  some  sparse  but  protecting  screen  of  trees.  Who  knows 
better  than  the  older  residents  here  the  changes  that  greet  one, 
both  summer  and  winter,  as  he  emerges  from  some  cove  or  group 
of  trees  on  a windy  day?  And  yet,  knowing  all  these  advantages 
of  trees,  together  with  others  equally  valuable,  what  have  our  peo- 
ple been  doing  in  the  direction  of  tree  planting?  Why,  practically 
nothing.  Over  these  thousands  of  acres  of  rolling  wheat  fields  there 
are  scarcely  more  than  a score  of  well  tilled  timber  claims,  orchards 
and  small  fruit  gardens.  It  is  true  many  thousands  of  trees  have 
been  planted,  but  large  numbers  of  these  have  died  out  entirely  or 
made  such  poor  growth  that  they  do  our  soil  and  climate,  yes,  and 
people,  too,  a grave  injustice.  Travel  which  way  you  will  from 
any  of  our  more  populous  towns,  and  timber  belts  varying  in  area 
from  five  to  twenty  acres  will  greet  the  eye;  but  what  proportion 
of  these  are  thrifty,  well  tilled  belts  or  groves?  Only  a small  propor- 
tion, so  far  as  my  limited  observation  goes.  Now  and  then  can  be 
found  one  that  even  under  a total  lack  of  care  has  made  a vigorous 
growth,  producing  in  five  to  twelve  years  trees  five  to  nine  inches 
in  diameter,  and  twenty  to  forty  feet  in  height.  On  the  contrary, 
many  others  have  produced  only  weak,  knurly  trees,  entirely  un- 
satisfactory to  the  — cultivator,  we  ought  to  say;  but  the  man  who 


98  Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

has  such  a plantation,  and  there  are  no  few  of  them,  is  not  a culti- 
vator in  the  best  sense  of  the  word;  he  is  only  an  owner. 

The  average  farmer  seems  to  forget,  or  else  has  never  fully 
realized,  that  most  trees  require  more  care  than  would  be  given  to 
a wheat  crop.  A grain  crop  matures  in  a year,  and  every  farmer 
knows  the  importance  of  preparing  a good  seed  bed;  but  when  he 
plants  a tree,  he  apparently  loses  sight  of  the  fact  that  this  crop 
takes  years  to  mature,  and  that  thorough  cultivation  of  the  soil  for 
a few  years  is  no  more  work  for  this  crop,  relatively  speaking,  than 
is  given  to  the  preparation  of  the  seed  bed  for  the  wheat  crop;  for, 
while  the  latter  requires  so  much  work  each  year  for  all  time,  the 
former  only  requires  this  attention  to  soil  tillage  for  a few  seasons 
covering  the  period  of  first  growth,  which  period,  though  requiring 
a few  years,  corresponds  with  the  germinating  period  of  the  wheat 
crop,  so  far  as  general  crop  growth  is  concerned,  while  for  years  to 
follow  very  little  or  no  work  is  required  to  keep  the  tree  crop 
growing  and  even  fruiting. 

The  fact  that  the  tree  crop  does  not  give  immediate  returns  is 
one  reason  why  it  receives  so  little  attention  at  the  hands  of  the 
average  cultivator.  This,  together  with  the  indifference  with  which 
farmers  in  general  look  upon  trees,  shrubs  and  vines,  underrating 
and  belittling  the  work  of  caring  for  them,  is  ample  cause  for  this 
neglect  of  the  tree  crop,  and  especially  the  forest  tree  crop. 

Some  figures  collected  during  the  past  few  days  from  orchards 
and  windbreaks  are  interesting,  as  showing  what  cultivation  will 
effect  in  tree  growth.  In  a small,  park-like  plantation  in  the  city 
of  Pullman,  located  on  bottom  land,  trees  four  years  old  that  have 
been  planted  out  two  years  and  given  thorough  tillage,  gave  the 
following  measurements: 

Elms  — No.  1,  7-J-  feet  high,  trunk  1 inch,  shoots  20  to  32  inches; 
No.  2,  8 feet  high,  trunk  1 inch,  shoots  20  to  35  inches;  No.  3,  8-J- 
feet  high,  trunk  1^-  inches,  shoots  30  to  60  inches;  No.  4,  7 feet 
high,  trunk  1 inch,  shoots  30  to  45  inches;  No.  5,  8 feet  high,  trunk 
1^  inches,  shoots  32  to  55  inches. 

Poplars  — No.  6,  11  feet  high,  trunk  2 inches,  shoots  28  to  45 
inches;  No.  7,  12  feet  high,  trunk  2^  inches,  shoots  30  to  44  inches. 

Buckeyes  — No.  8,  4 feet  high,  trunk  1 inch,  shoots  2 to  4 inches; 
No.  9,  6 feet  high,  trunk  1^  inches,  shoots  4 to  6 inches. 

The  measurement  of  trunks  in  all  cases  is  taken  two  feet  from 
the  ground. 


Bulletin  5. — May , 189%. 


99 


In  a windbreak  on  a northeast  hillside,  the  following  measure- 
ments were  taken  as  an  average  of  several  fair  representatives  of 
the  trees  there  growing: 

Box  elders,  not  over  six  years  old  and  18  to  20  feet  high,  with  a 
spread  of  from  8 to  12  feet;  No.  10,  trunk  8 inches,  shoots  18  to 
30  inches;  No.  11,  trunks  3-^  inches,  shoots  18  to  36;  No.  12,  trunk 
3^  inches,  shoots  20  to  40;  No.  13;  trunk  3-J-  inches,  shoots  18  to 
44;  No.  14,  trunk  4 inches,  shoots  20  to  45.  Most  of  the  shoots 
were  from  §■  to  ^ an  inch  in  diameter. 

Some  four-year  ash  trees  gave  data  as  follows:  No.  15,  6-J  feet 
high,  trunk  1 inch,  shoots  12  inches;  No.  16,  7 feet  high,  trunk  1^ 
inches,  shoots  14;  No.  17,  8 feet  high,  trunk  1 ^ inches,  shoots  14 
to  16.  Spread  of  top  in  the  above,  about  6 feet. 

Silver  maples  four  years  old  in  the  same  plantation  were  12  to  15 
feet  high,  with  last  year’s  shoots  frequently  5 feet  long  and  \ an 
inch  thick. 

Some  four-year-old  apple  trees  on  a similar  slope,  but  cultivated 
more  thoroughly  than  in  the  above  timber  belt,  made  an  average 
growth  of  two  to  two  and  a half  feet  on  trees  having  trunks  from 
one  to  two  inches  in  diameter. 

In  all  the  above  cases  the  trees  presented  a healthy,  thrifty  ap- 
pearance, while  the  contrary  in  all  respects  was  well  shown  in 
some  measurements  and  observations  taken  in  an  untilled  timber 
belt. 

Observations  made  in  one  timber  belt  showed  many  of  the  box 
elder  trees,  on  the  south  side  of  the  plantation,  entirely  dead  above 
ground,  apparently  winter  killed;  at  the  same  time  some  ash  trees 
of  the  same  age  but  smaller,  with  the  same  care  and  exposure,  were 
extremely  healthy  and  vigorous  in  appearance.  These  trees  had 
been  fairly  well  cultivated,  and  it  was  charged  that  the  clean  culti- 
vation had  produced  too  prolonged  growth  in  the  fall.  How  near 
the  truth  this  is  has  not  yet  been  fully  ascertained.  But,  however 
this  may  be,  it  is  certain  that  pests  and  diseases  have  wrought  far 
more  devastation  in  the  untilled  and  unpruned  plantations.  Broken 
down  trees  infested  with  fungous  and  insect  pests  are  wide  spread 
in  the  timber  belts  that  have  been  left  uncared  for. 

A point  of  no  little  significance  in  the  consideration  of  the  tree 
crop  is  that  the  trimmings  from  a belt  of  vigorous  growing  trees 
will  afford  the  cultivator  fuel  enough  to  cover  the  cost  of  cultiva- 


100  Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


tion  after  the  first  two  or  three  seasons.  After  some  few  years  the 
more  rapid  growing  trees  will  begin  to  return  a revenue,  for  their 
cultivation  will  be  stopped,  and  what  fuel  is  taken  from  the  belt 
either  as  branches  in  pruning  or  trees  in  thinning  will  be  income 
from  the  crop.  With  the  slower  growing  trees,  and  particularly 
the  nut-bearing  trees,  it  will  be  longer  before  returns  in  this  form 
may  be  expected,  but  when  they  do  come  they  will  be  all  the  more 
substantial.  For,  while  these  slower  growing  trees  do  not  furnish 
a windbreak  in  so  short  a time,  or  show  so  large  a quantity  of 
wood  in  a given  time,  the  wood  is  heavier,  closer-grained  and,  con- 
sequently, bulk  for  bulk,  of  greater  value. 

From  these  figures  we  may  learn  one  or  two  lessons  regarding 
culture  and  tree  growth  that  may  be  profitably  studied  by  the 
average  farmer  who  as  yet  has  devoted  no  time  and  labor  to  his 
crop. 

First , That  our  hardier  forest  trees  make  vigorous  growth  in 
this  section  when  thoroughly  cultivated. 

Second , That  untilled  belts  make  very  slow  growth,  even  when 
composed  of  the  hardier  trees. 

Third , That  the  trimmings  from  a well  cultivated  timber  belt 
pay  the  cost  of  cultivating  after  the  third  or  fourth  year,  and  after 
the  tenth  or  twelfth  make  some  returns  above  all  cost  of  care. 

DISCUSSION. 

Mr.  Russell:  What  is  the  best  shade  tree  for  this  section? 

Professor  Lake:  This  is  a question  which  Mr.  Russell  ought 
to  answer  for  me,  rather  than  I for  him.  However,  from  what  I 
have  seen  in  the  vicinity  of  Pullman  I should  deem  the  American 
maples  and  elms  as  of  first  choice.  They  are  not  as  rapid  growers 
as  some  others,  but  they  are  hardy,  fair  growers;  well  shaped  and 
very  free  from  pests.  Still,  I should  want  more  experience  before 
advising  would-be  planters.  Why  our  native  trees,  such  as  pines, 
firs,  ashes,  spruces,  etc.,  are  not  more  frequently  planted,  is  a ques- 
tion with  me.  I deem  many  of  our  native  trees  very  promising  for 
shade,  shelter  and  ornament,  and  would  urge  all  intending  planters 
to  give  some  few  of  them  at  least  a fair  trial. 

Mr.  Russell:  Generally,  I think  people  hereabouts  find  the 
black  locust  does  best  as  a shade  tree. 


Bulletin  5. — May,  1892. 


101 


A.  A.  Owsley:  *1  would  like  to  know  something  regarding  the 
smut  that  is  found  in  our  grains. 

Professor  Lake:  This  smut  is  a plant,  microscopic  in  size  and 
parasitic  in  its  nature.  The  part  which  we  are  most  familiar  with 
is  the  fruit  of  this  plant.  When  one  kicks  an  old  or  ripe  “puff 
ball”  or  “toad  stool,”  a cloud  of  dust  issues.  This  dust  is  com- 
posed of  numberless  small  bodies  called  spores.  The  spores  are 
the  “seed”  of  this  smut  plant,  and  taking  this  as  the  starting  point, 
the  life  history  of  these  plants  may  be  briefly  stated  as  follows: 
One  or  more  of  these  spores  becoming  lodged  on  the  threshed  grain, 
are  sown  with  it  and  germinate  when  it  germinates.  The  spores 
throw  out  a root-like  body  which  passes  along  over  the  surface  of 
the  grain  and  enters  the  young  shoot  of  the  wheat,  for  instance,  as 
it  comes  forth.  It  is  only  during  a brief  period,  just  as  the  grain 
is  sprouting,  that  this  entrance  of  the  wheat  stem  can  be  effected 
by  the  root-like  growth  of  the  smut.  When  this  smut  plant  has 
entered  the  grain  plant  it  begins  to  absorb  from  the  sap  or  cell  con- 
tents of  the  latter  such  material  as  it  needs  for  its  own  growth.  In 
this  way  it  grows  as  the  wheat  plant  grows,  and  when  finally  the 
wheat  plant  is  ready  to  head  out  or  form  seed  the  smut  plant  is 
likewise  ready  to  begin  forming  spores,  and  for  this  purpose  absorbs 
more  or  less  of  the  “milk”  of  the  wheat.  If  the  smut  plant  has 
not  become  a strong  one  it  may  only  take  from  the  wheat  plant 
enough  food  for  a kernel  or  two,  or  more,  while,  if  it  has  become 
strong  it  may  require  for  its  use  all  the  milk  of  a wheat  head,  thus 
making  one  or  two  smutted  grains  or  all  in  a head,  or  several  ker- 
nels in  the  heads  of  a stool  of  the  wheat  plant.  The  only  remedy 
for  this  trouble  is  one  of  prevention.  We  are  not  made  aware  of 
the  presence  of  this  smut  plant,  or  fungus,  till  it  fruits  or  forms 
spores  in  the  wheat  head,  and  then  it  is  too  late,  practically,  to  do 
any  good,  though  the  burning  of  all  smutted  heads  would  much 
lessen  the  danger  of  infection  to  the  next  crop.  A general  practice 
during  the  past  few  years  among  our  more  progressive  farmers  has 
been  to  soak  the  seed  just  previous  to  planting  in  a solution  of  blue 
vitriol;  however,  later  experiments  show  that  soaking  the  seed  for 
a few  minutes,  not  more  than  fifteen,  in  water  heated  to  a temper- 
ature of  132°  F.,  not  lower  than  130°  and  not  higher  than  135°. 
When  the  grain  is  taken  from  its  hot  bath  cold  water  should  be 

*This  question  is  discussed  in  Bulletin  3. 


102 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


turned  over  it  to  keep  from  further  heating.  This  treatment  kills 
the  smut  spores  and  in  no  respect  injures  the  grain  but  rather  does 
it  good,  as  it  hastens  germination.  The  advantages  of  the  hot 
water  treatment  over  the  vitrioling  is  that  the  former  costs  nothing 
for  material,  requires  about  the  same  labor  to  treat  and  is  rather 
more  effective  than  the  latter. 

Mr.  Oliphant:  f The  wireworms  are  doing  much  damage  to 
wheat  in  this  section,  and  we  would  like  to  know  how  to  treat  them. 

Professor  Lake:  Professor  Cotnstock  has  done  some  very  thor- 
ough work  in  ascertaining  the  habits  of  this  pest  and  best  methods 
of  fighting  it.  These  “worms”  are  the  larvae  of  several  species 
of  beetles  commonly  called  click  beetles.  They  are  particularly 
destructive  because  they  live  three  years  in  this  stage  of  their  life. 
As  you  know,  insects  undergo  three  transformations.  First  they 
are  larvae  or  “worms;”  second  they  are  pupae  or  chrysalids,  and 
third  they  are  beetles,  moths,  butterflies,  bugs,  etc.  In  his  experi-  ' 
ments  Prof.  Comstock  found  only  one  remedy  worthy  of  recom- 
mendation, and  that  is  fall  plowing.  When  the  older  of  these 
“worms”  enter  the  next  stage  of  their  life  — i.  <?.,  become  pupae  — 
they  go  down  into  the  soil  four  to  six  inches  and  there,  in  a cell, 
undergo  the  transormations  that  make  a worm  a beetle.  This 
they  do  usually  about  the  early  part  of  July.  If  the  ground  is 
turned  over  some  few  weeks  after  this  time  many  of  the  cells  in 
which  the  pupae,  or  immature  beetles,  are  found  will  be  broken  and 
the  beetles,  which  at  this  stage  are  very  soft  and  unprotected,  are 
easily  destroyed  by  exposure.  After  plowing,  the  soil  should  be 
thoroughly  pulverized  again  and  again.  This  treatment  kept  up 
for  three  years  ought  to  well  rid  a field  of  this  pest.  Still  it  would 
be  necessary  to  repeat  at  intervals.  As  it  is  difficult  to  plow  land 
here  so  early  in  the  season  it  may  be  delayed  until  the  first  fall 
rains  come,  but  should  not  long  be  delayed  thereafter  as  the  beetles 
steadily  again  become  less  susceptible  to  the  effects  of  the  tillage. 
It  is  not  necessary  to  withhold  a crop  from  the  land  any  year  in  or- 
der to  carry  out  this  treatment. 


t Bulletin  4 treats  of  this  question. 


I 


Bulletin  5. — May , 1892. 


103 


The  following  p 

Allen,  A.  B. 

Allen,  A.  E. 

Allen,  C.  P. 

Bond,  J.  W. 

Brown,  G.  W. 

Bond,  Thomas. 
Bookman,  Charles. 
Burge,  C.  C. 

Butler,  D.  C. 
Bartels,  J.  F. 

Beck,  John. 
Baldwin,  Z.  A. 
Brad}’,  Bert. 
Brockman,  Chris. 
Benbon,  H.  C. 
Burlingame,  E. 
Brown,  R.  B. 
Chappell,  S.  C. 
Chambers,  Jos. 
Campbell,  G.  L. 
Carter,  W.  W. 
Clary,  Jos. 
Cosgrove,  S.  G. 
Cohn,  Bernard. 
Dyche,  T.  J. 
Davidson,  J.  O. 
Davis,  A.  D. 

Dixon,  Jos. 

Dixon,  Gilbert. 
DeBow,  Mrs.  C.  H. 
Davis,  J.  S. 
Elsensohn,  F.  J. 
Eller,  Geo. 

Frank  Bros. 

Ford,  Albert. 
Freeborn,  W.  S. 

Fox  & Son. 


ATTENDANCE. 


rsons  were  in  attendance 

Freeman,  W.  L. 
Gilmour,  Alex. 

Gibson,  R.  G. 

Gutka,  Albert. 

Geiger,  Frank. 

Gose,  M.  L. 

Greene,  W.  E. 

Guth,  Henry. 

Gose,  Dr.  J.  R. 

Graham  & Kay. 

Hull,  C.  B. 

Hagy,  J.  H. 

Herndon,  F.  P. 

Heaton,  G.  S. 

Hughes,  J.  G. 

Hunter,  J.  W. 

Hanson,  H.  J. 

Hull,  S.  K. 

Hunt,  Moses. 

Hert,  A. 

Henley,  H.  B. 
Hathaway,  H.  M. 

Hiller,  Henry. 

Hawkins,  J.  B. 

Irwin,  R.  A. 

Jackson,  G.  F. 

Jewett,  J. 

Johnson,  Emil. 

Jones,  J.  F. 

Kimes,  Samuel. 
Kansche,  Henry. 
Kenney,  G.  W. 

Kassel,  Mike. 

Knettle,  N.  D. 

Light,  W.  F. 

Lubking,  J. 
Ledgerwood,  C. 


Long,  J . H. 

Legg,  Amos. 

Mays,  F.  W.  D. 
McEnnery,  Wm. 
Mendenhall,  A.  H. 
Murphy,  J.  W. 
McMaster,  J.  R. 
Moore,  J.  M. 

Mulkey,  L.  P. 

Miller,  Andrew. 
McBride,  D.  H. 
Mitchell,  Lt.  John. 
McBrearty,  F.  J. 
McHone,  L. 
McCalley,  W.  W. 
Neibel,  Mrs.  Lizzie. 
Oliver,  John. 

Owsley,  A.  A. 

Oliver,  E. 

Oliver,  A. 

Palmer,  James. 
Patterson,  Mrs.  N.  S. 
Robinson,  C.  G. 
Rauch,  E.  M. 
Stephens,  J.  A. 
Scoggin,  J.  G. 
Scoggin,  T.  C. 

St.  George,  Harry. 
Seeley,  C.  H. 

Teale,  E.  G. 

Tyrrel,  J.  D. 

Wise,  H.  H. 
Whitcomb,  Lew. 
Wilcox,  M.  J. 

Zimm,  F.  N. 


All  Bulletins  of  this  Station  are  sent  free  to  residents  of  the  State. 
Persons  desiring1  their  names  on  our  mailing  list  should  address 

PRESIDENT,  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE, 

PULLMAN,  WASH. 


STATE  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE  AND 
SCHOOL  OF  SCIENCE. 


Experiment  Station, 


PULLMAN,  WASHINGTON. 

7 - > 


Bulletin  6. 


HORTICILTLTEAL  INFORMATION. 


OCTOBER,  1892. 


OLYMPIA,  WASH.: 

O.  C.  AVHITE,  . . . STATE  PRINTER. 

1893. 


All  Bulletins  of  this  Station  are  sent  free  to  residents  of  the  State. 
Persons  desiring  their  names  on  our  mailing  list  should  address 

PRESIDENT,  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE, 

PULLMAN,  WASH. 


STATE  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE  AND 
SCHOOL  OF  SCIENCE. 


Experiment  Station, 

PULLMAN,  WASHINGTON. 


Bulletin  6. 


HOETI CULTURAL  INFORMATION. 


OCTOBER,  1892. 


OLYMPIA,  WASH.: 

O.  C.  WHITE,  . . . STATE  PRINTER. 

1893. 


HORTICULTURAL. 


E.  R.  LAKE. 


Bulletin  No.  1 of  this  Station,  among  other  things,  stated  that, 
so  far  as  circumstances  would  permit,  we  would  endeavor  to  make 
tests  and  experiments  as  follows  : 

HORTICULTURE. 

“1.  Local  and  general  tests  of  the  older  and  newer  varieties  of  all  the 
hardy  orchard  and  small  fruits. 

“2.  General  and  practical  tests  of  cultural  methods,  with  reference  to 
localities  and  soil. 

‘3.  The  introduction  and  dissemination  of  the  more  promising  fruits 
and  nuts  from  foreign  states,  particularly  Russia  and  Japan. 

“4.  The  improvement,  by  selection  and  cross-fertilization,  of  our  na- 
tive fruits.” 

BOTANY. 

“1.  A systematic  study,  including  an  exhaustive  collection,  of  the 
state’s  flora. 

“2.  Local  and  general  tests  covering  the  introduction  into  cultivation 
of  our  native  grasses,  clovers  and  other  forage  plants,  as  well  as  the 
promising  ornamental  herbs. 

“3.  The  establishment  of  a botanic  garden  wherein  may  be  gathered, 
as  nearly  as  possible,  all  the  native  plants  of  the  state  as  well  as  some  for- 
eign ones. 

“4.  The  thorough  testing  of  grasses  and  other  forage  plants  for  the 
arid  sections  of  the  state.” 

FORESTRY. 

“1.  A general  study  of  the  forestal  conditions  of  the  state,  with  special 
reference  to  forest  preservation  and  tree  growth. 

“2.  The  testing  of  native  and  introduced  forest  and  ornamental  trees 
in  the  treeless  portions  of  the  state. 

“3.  The  collection  into  an  arboretum  of  all  the  native  trees  and  shrubs 
of  promising  economic  or  ornamental  importance. 

“It  will  he  understood  that  the  above  is  only  a general  outline  of  pro- 
posed popular  work.  Each  section  embraces  many  specific  questions, 
such  as  the  selection  of  special  varieties  for  particular  localities  and  soils; 


108  Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


irrigation,  in  so  far  as  it  relates  to  orchard  and  garden  crops;  deep  and 
shallow  cultivation;  winter  protection  of  tender  trees  and  herbs;  prun- 
ing; evaporation  and  other  methods  of  preserving  fruits,  etc.,  etc.  So 
far  as  the  strictly  scientific  work  of  this  division  is  concerned,  no  definite 
plan  of  action  can  be  formed  until  further  information  is  gathered  relative 
to  the  horticultural  and  forestal  needs  and  resources  of  the  state,  and 
until  much  necessary  preliminary  work  is  done.” 

In  accordance  with  this  brief  and  necessarily  incomplete  state- 
ment of  the  work  of  this  department,  the  following  plantings  have 
been  made.  Some  observations  have  been  taken;  exchanges  ef- 
fected, and  much  other  preliminary  work  done,  which  will  be  sub- 
jects for  later  bulletins. 

ORCHARD  FRUITS. 

Apples. — Autumn  Strawberry,  Alexander,  Arabskoe,  Baldwin,  Benoni, 
Benton,  Ben  Davis,  Burlington,  Bottle  Greening,  Boiken,  Bogdanoff, 
Borovinka,  Bogdanoff  White,  Cardinal  Celina,  Duchess,  Danvers  Sweet, 
Dominie,  Edgar  Red  Streak,  Early  Harvest,  Fallawater,  Gano,  Grimes 
Golden,  Golden  Sweet,  Golden  Russett,  Golden  Reinette,  Hubbardston, 
Huntsman,  Horse,  Hyde’s  King,  IXL,  Keswick  Codlin,  Kronesh  Rosy, 
Longfield,  Lowell,  Munson’s  Sweet,  Mann,  Maiden’s  Blush,  N.  W.  Green- 
ing, Palouse,  Pewaukee,  Peter,  Princess  Louisa,  Rambo,  Red  Astrachan, 
Rawles  Janet,  Romna,  Scott’s  Winter,  Sops  of  Wine,  Stark,  Salome, 
Sweet  Bough,  Shirk,  Shipper’s  Pride,  Sklanka  Bog,  Skruschapfel,  Talman 
Sweet,  Tetofsky,  Winter  Fameuse,  Windsor  Chief,  Winter  Sweet  Para- 
dise, Wagner.  Wealthy,  White  Pippin,  Yellow  Transparent;  also  num- 
bers 399,  447,  185,  502,  3m,  135m,  252,  200,  38  vor,  378,  365,  442,  18m,  277, 
980,  56  vor,  327,  379,  316,  of  Russian  introduction  by  Iowa  Agricultural 
College. 

Crabs. — Transcendant,  Gideon,  Hyslop. 

Apricots. — Alexander,  Budd,  Gibb,  Shense,  Unknown. 

Cherries. — Amarelle  Bunte,  Abesse,  Bigarreau,  Black  Tartarian,  Belle 
Magnifique,  Bessarabian,  Brusseler  Braune,  Basnder,  Dyehouse,  Doppelte 
Natte,  Elton,  Early  Richmond,  Eugenie,  Frauendorfer  Weichsel,  Galopin, 
Governor  Wood,  Girotte  du  Nord,  Geo.  Glass,  Hunt,  Heart-shaped 
Weichsel,  Herzog  Formeig  Weichsel,  Koper,  King  Amarelle,  June  Ama- 
relle, Louis  Phillippe,  Lutovka,  Morello,  Montmorency  Large,  Markirsch, 
Maquoketa,  Ohio,  Ostheim,  Ostheimer,  Orel  27,  Orient  Kirsche,  Orel 
Sweet,  Orange  Kirsche,  Reine  Hortense,  108  Riga,  Red  Muscateller, 
Smidt’s  Biggar,  Sklanka,  Spate  Amarelle,  Strauss  Weichsel,  Windsor, 
Wragg,  Wagner,  Yilne  Sweet,  Z 5 Orel. 

Mulberries. — American,  Downing. 

Peaches. — Bokara  No.  2,  Nellie  Noyes,  North  China,  Stewart’s  Ironclad, 
Sargent,  Wonderful. 

Pears. — Autumn  Garber,  Bartlett,  Bessemianka,  Clapp’s  Favorite,  Cole’s 
Seedless,  Chinese  du  Engery,  Crassare  Bergamot,  Exeter,  Garber,  Idaho, 


Bulletin  6. — October , 189%. 


109 


Kieffer,  Le  Conte,  Lawson,  Lawrence,  Lucrative,  Louise  Bonne  of  Jersey, 
Margaret,  Madeline,  Mount  Vernon,  Moscow,  Orel  15,  Peffer  No.  2,  Sekel, 
Tyson,  Wilder,  White  Doyenne.  Also  numbers:  4m,  1401,  418,  347,  391, 
358,  345,  392  Zuckerbern,  107  vor,  396,  513,  12m,  of  Russian  introduction 
by  Iowa  Agricultural  College. 

Plums. — Abundance,  Beauty  of  Naples,  Communia,  Cheney,  Chippewa, 
De  Soto,  Duanes  Purple,  Dame  Aubert  Red,  Eaton,*  Early  Red,  Forest 
Garden,  Forest  Rose,  Griotte  Precoce,  Garfield,  Golden  Beauty,  Gros, 
Mogul,  Geuii,  Hawkeye,  Kelsey,  Lombard,  Moore’s  Arctic,  Merunka,  Mc- 
Laughlin, Moldavka,  Niagara,  Orel  21,  Orel  19,  Orel  20,  Pottawatomie, 
Pissardii,  Prince  Imperial,  Quaker  Beauty,  Reine  Claude,  Richland,  Rol- 
lingstone,  Riga  113,  Shropshire  Damson,  Saratoga,  Simonii,  Smith’s  Or- 
leans, Spaulding,  Trabesche,  Wolf,  Weaver,  Wild  Goose,  White  Nicholas, 
Yellow  Gage,  Yellow,  122. 

Prunes. — Black,  Petite  d’Agen,  Golden,  Hungarian,  Italian,  Ungarish. 

Quinces. — Champion,  Orange. 

SMALL  FRUITS. 

Blackberries. — Agawam,  Ancient  Briton,  Erie,  Early  Harvest,  Early 
Texas,  Kittatinny,  Lawton,  Snyder,  Taylor,  Wachusetts  Thornless,  Wil- 
son Junior. 

Currants. — Black  Champion,  Black  Naples,  Cherry,  Crandall,  La  Ver- 
sailles, Lee’s  Prolific,  Red  Dutch,  Victoria,  White  Dutch,  White  Grape, 
White  Gondoin. 

Dewberries. — Lucretia,  Natives. f 

Gooseberries. — Crown  Bob,  Downing,  Farragut,  Houghton,  Industry, 
Roesch,  Smith’s  Improved,  Whitesmith. 

Baspberries. — Carolina,  Cuthbert,  Crimson  Beauty,  Carman,  Earhart, 
Gregg,  Golden  Queen,  Hillborn,  Johnson,  Marlboro,  Ohio,  Progress 
Pioneer,  Palmer’s  Seedling,  Philadelphia,  Souhegan,  Turner. 

Strawberries. — Bubach  No.  5,  Cloud,  Crawford,  Charles  Downing, 
Crescent,  Cumberland,  Dominion,  Gandy,  Glendale,  Great  Pacific,  Great 
American,  Haverland,  Jersey  Queen,  Jucunda,  Kentucky,  Lady  Rusk, 
Miami,  Michel’s  Early,  Miner’s  Prolific,  Mount  Vernon,  Monmouth,  Mon- 
arch, Mistress  Cleveland,  Old  Iron  Clad,  Phillip’s  Seedling,  Parry,  Parker 
Earle,  Sharpless,  Wilson,  Warfield,  Yale. 

LAWN  PLANTINGS. 

Chrysanthemums. — Mrs.  E.  D.  Adams,  Alcazar,  Atlanta,  Aquindick, 
Prince  Alfred,  Mme.  C.  Audignier,  Mme.  Bernard,  Bohemia,  M.  Bour- 
guignor,  Mrs.  Jessie  Barr,  Lillian  B.  Bird,  Dr.  Charles  Brigham,  Louis 
Boehmer,  The  Bride,  Mme.  F.  Bergman,  Mme.  Bacco,  Mrs.  F.  Clinton, 
Miss  M.  Colgate,  Cleopatre,  Colorado,  J.  Collins,  Cortez,  Circe,  Cythere, 


* Native  from  Colorado. 

fFrom  F.  J.  May,  Avon,  Washington. 


110  Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


Mrs.  L.  Cartridge,  Miss  M.  Cartledge,  Excellent,  L.  B.  Dana,  Jno.  Dyer, 
Delaware,  Daisy,  Mrs.  John  Fogg,  Flora  Fewkes,  M.  H.  de  Fortanier, 
Mrs.  A.  Hardy,  Grandiflorum,  Eugenia  Giat,  Gold,  Mrs.  Grace  Hill,  E.  G. 
Hill,  Elk  Horn,  President  Hyde,  Jean  Humphrey,  Hartshorn,  Ithaca,  Iro- 
quois, W.  L.  Kendall,  Rose  Laing,  Harry  Laing,  Etoile  de  Lyon,  Llew- 
ellen,  La  Fortune,  W.  W.  Lunt,  Mme.  Louis  Langlois,  W.  A.  Manda, 
Moravia,  Grand  Mogul,  Marsalia,  Mrs.  T.  F.  Mercer,  Annie  Manda,  Mari- 
posa, Marvel,  Harry  May,  Michigan,  Monadnock,  Miss  Meredith,  Magi- 
cienne,  Orizaba,  Onedia,  Oswego,  Ontario,  Passaic,  Jas.  R.  Pitcher,  Mrs. 
J.  C.  Price,  Violet  Rose,  Clara  Riemen,  Rohallion,  Stanstead,  Surprise, 
Shasta,  Snowdrift,  Snowball,  Brazen  Shield,  Sachem,  Tyro,  Tuscola,  Twi- 
light, Mrs.  G.  B.  Topham,  Ulysses,  Vieil  Or,  Val  d’Andorre,  Wichita, 
Crystal  Wave,  Frank  Wilcox,  Harry  E.  Widener,  Yonitza. 

Roses. — Marguerite  de  St.  Amanda,  Marie  Baumann,  Maurice  Bern- 
ardin,  Blanchefleur,  Baron  de  Bonstetten,  White  Baroness,  Baltimore 
Belle,  Eliza  Boelle,  White  Bath,  American  Beauty,  Alfred  Colomb,  Magna 
Charta,  Abel  Carriere,  Rev.  J.  B.  Camm,  Prince  Camille  de  Rohan,  Glory 
of  Cheshunt,  Centifolia,  Countess  of  Chabrilliant,  Chenedolle,  Anne  de 
Diesback,  Earl  of  Dufferin,  Dinsmore,  Abel  Grand,  Gracilis,  Coupe 
d’Hebe,  Mme.  Hardy,  John  Hopper,  Fisher  Holmes,  Mme.  Jolly,  Hippo- 
lyte  Jamain,  General  Jacqueminot,  Mme.  Gabriel  Luizet,  Charles  Le- 
febvre,  Mrs.  John  Laing,  Francois  Levet,  Jean  Liabaud,  Gloire  de 
Margottin,  Common  Moss,  Mabel  Morrison,  Blanche  Moreau,  Anna 
Maria,  Charles  Margottin,  Francois  Michelon,  Jules  Margottin, , Paul 
Neyron,  Mme.  Noman,  Pierre  Notting,  Countess  of  Oxford,  Gem  of  the 
Prairies,  Baronne  Prevost,  Queen  of  the  Prairies,  Mme.  Plantier,  Rugosa 
Rubra,  Baroness  Rothschild,  La  Rosiere,  La  Reine,  Marie  Rady,  Countess 
of  Serenye,  Alphonso,  Soupert,  Lady  Helen  Stewart,  Caroline  de  Sansal, 
Eugenie  Verdier,  Paul  Verdier,  Mme.  Victor  Verdier,  Marshall  P.  Wilder, 
Persian  Yellow. 

Various  other  shrubs,  vines  and  trees  were  planted  for  strictly 
ornamental  purposes,  but  which  at  the  same  time  will  furnish  desir- 
able material  for  observation,  comparison  and  experiment. 


FOREST  TREES  AND  SHRUBS.* 


Abies  grandis 

“ balsamea  

Acer  pseudo-platanus 

“ dasycarpum  

“ macrophyllum ... 

“ platanoides 

“ rubrum 

“ campestre 

“ saccharin um  


. Silver  fir. 

. Balsam  fir. 
Sycamore  maple. 
Silver  maple. 
Oregon  maple. 
..Norway  maple. 
Red  maple. 
English  maple. 
Sugar  maple. 


* Several  thousand  of  these  were  put  into  nursery  rows,  as  nearly  all  were  under  one 
foot  in  height. 


Bulletin  6. — October , 189%. 


Ill 


iEsculus  hippocastanum 

Alnus  rubra 

Amelanchier  alnifolia 

“ oligocarpa 

Asimina  triloba 

Berberis,  sp? 

Betula  alba 

“ lutea 

Buxus  Sempervirens 

Calycanthus,  sp? 

Carpinus  caroliniana 

Cary  a alba . 

Castanea  sativa 

“ “ var.  americana 

Catalpa  speciosa 

“ bignonioides 

Celtis  occidentalis 

Ceanothus  velutinus 

“ sp? 

Cotoneaster  Simonsii 

Cornus  Nuttalli 

“ sanguinea  

“ SP? 

Corylus  americana 

Crataegus  tomentosa 

Cytisus  scoparius 

Fagus  americana 

Fraxinus  viridis 

“ americana 

Gymnocladus  canadensis 

Juglans  cinerea 

“ nigra 

Juniperus  virgin iana 

Larix  americana 

“ europese 

Ligustrum  vulgare 

Negundo  aceroides 

Philadelphus  Lewisii 

Picea  alba 

“ excelsa 

“ pungens  

“ nigra 

Pinus  strobus 

“ pungens (?) 

“ laricio 

“ sylvestris 

“ banksiana  

“ sp?  

“ austriaca  


Horse  chestnut. 

Red  alder. 

Western  serviceberry. 
Dwarf  serviceberry. 
Papaw,  Wahoo. 
Barberry. 

White  birch. 

Yellow  birch. 

Box. 


Hornbeam. 

Hickory. 

.Spanish  chestnut. 
.American  chestnut. 
Hardy  catalpa. 
Catalpa. 

Hackberry. 

.Elkbrush. 


Rose  box. 
Dogwood. 
.Dogwood. 


Hazelnut. 

Haw. 

.Broom. 

Beech. 

Green  ash. 

White  ash. 

Kentucky  coffee-tree. 
.Butternut. 

Walnut. 

.Savin. 

American  larch. 
European  larch. 

Privet. 

Box  elder. 

.Syringa  or  Mock  orange. 
White  spruce. 

Norway  spruce. 
Colorado  blue  spruce. 
.Black  Spruce. 

.White  pine. 

Mountain  pine. 

Corsican  pine. 

Scotch  pine. 

Jack  pine. 

Dwarf  pine. 

Austrian  pine. 


112  Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


Populus  balsamifera 

“ “ var.  candicans 

“ alba 

“ fastigiata 

Prunus  serotina 

Pseudotsuga  Douglasii .. 

Pyrus  aucuparia 

“ americana 

Quercus  rubra 

“ prinus 

“ sp?  

“ alba  

Ribes  sanguineum 

Salix  (several  species) 

Sambucus  racemosa 

Thuya  occidentalis 

“ gigantea 

Tilia  americana 

“ europea? 

Tsuga  canadensis 

Ulmus  americana 

Virburnum  opulus 


Balsam  poplar. 

Poplar. 

White  poplar. 
Lombardy  poplar. 
Black  cherry. 

Douglas  fir. 

Mountain  ash. 
Mountain  ash. 

.Red  oak. 

Chestnut  oak. 

Oak. 

White  oak. 

Red-flowering  currant. 
Willow. 

Red-fruited  elder. 
White  cedar. 

Canoe  cedar. 

American  linden. 
European  linden. 
Hemlock. 

.American  elm. 

Tree  cranberry. 


Bulletin  6. — October , 189%. 


113 


AN  ORCHARD  ENEMY. 


It  is  exasperating  and  discouraging,  to  say  the  least,  to  the 
would-be  orchardist  who,  after  years  of  toil  and  great  moneyed 
outlay,  finds  that  his  trees  are  not  true  to  name.  It  is  no  less  a 
discouragement  to  find  after  a similar  lapse  of  time  that  his  trees 
are  weaklings,  diseased  from  the  roots  up;  in  fact  the  latter  is  the 
more  serious  matter.  For  while  a strong  healthy  tree  of  an  unde- 
sirable variety  may  be  made  in  a short  time  to  bear  abundantly  of 
the  desired  variety,  a diseased  weakling  will  never  give  creditable 
results.  Not  only  will  there  be  a loss  of  time  and  money  in  the 
planting  and  care  of  the  original  trees,  but  the  possibility  and  even 
probability  that  the  germs  of  disease  will  be  spread  from  the  af- 
fected ones  to  the  others,  and  thus  injure  a whole  planting  or  even 
several  plantings  in  the  immediate  neighborhood,  is  by  far  a more 
serious  subject  for  consideration. 

To  the  planter  of  apple  trees  in  this  Northwest  there  is  no  more 
serious  pest  than  the  woolly  aphis.  It  is  an  insidious  foe,  one  that 
creeps  into  the  orchard  and  saps  the  life  from  otherwise  promising 
trees,  as  stealthily  as  a midnight  marauder,  doing  its  first  and  most 
lasting  work  under  cover  of  earth  — in  darkness.  In  other  words, 
this  pest  makes  its  appearance  on  the  roots  of  the  young  trees 
while  in  the  nursery  in  many  instances,  especially  in  old  nursery 
ground. 

Having  occasion  to  examine  a quantity  of  apple  seedlings  for 
grafting  purposes,  it  was  observed  that  the  larger  part  of  them  had 
twisted,  tortuous  and  knotted  roots.  Some  were  slightly  abnor- 
mal; others  more  so;  while  some  were  simply  monstrous.  Upon 
closer  examination  there  appeared  multitudes  of  little  knots  or  ex- 
crescences of  the  size  of  a pin  head  and  larger,  intermingled  with 
the  larger  ones,  which  latter  ones  were  frequently  as  large  as  fil- 
berts. This  was  recognized  as  the  work  of  the  woolly  aphis,  and 
the  whole  stock  as  a result  discarded. 

Last  spring  while  planting  yearling  apple  trees,  purchased  in  the 
eastern  states,  the  telltale  “warts,”  as  the  workmen  called  them, 
were  found  on  several  trees.  It  is  needless  to  say  the  trees  were 
at  once  destroyed,  as  it  is  safe  to  take  no  chances  with  such  a foe. 


114  Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


Undoubtedly  much  of  the  trouble  from  this  pest  arises  from  its 
dissemination  in  this  way — on  the  roots  of  young  trees.  The  av- 
erage planter  is  not  familiar  with  the  appearance  of  tree  roots.  He 
has  not  closely  observed  the  difference  between  the  excrescences 
caused  by  this  pest  and  outgrowths  caused  by  local  injury,  as  by 
barking  in  cultivation. 

For  the  benefit  of  those  who  are  not  familiar  with  the  root  effects 
of  this  pest  we  present  the  following  cuts,  taken  from  photographs 
of  one  year  old  seedlings  grown  on  the  coast.  They  were  consid- 
ered at  the  time  they  were  taken,  by  those  present,  to  be  fair  speci- 
mens of  the  normal  and  abnormal  plants  found  in  the  examination 
above  mentioned. 


About  one-tenth  natural  size  (unaffected). 


YzAft. . O^p  j 

& St.  fa  i (fi/ifs  ] 

8y  I 

1|  Woovt  I 


About  one-eighth  natural  size  (affected.) 


Bulletin  6.—  October,  189%. 


117 


DONATIONS. 


During  the  past  year  the  following  named  persons  have  made 
donations  to  the  department  as  follows: 

Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C.:  Samples  of  fruit  of  sev- 
eral varieties  of  almonds  and  chestnuts  from  Sicily. 

Geo.  Ruedy,  Colfax,  Wash.:  Palouse  apple,  Shirk  apple,  Benton  apple, 
Golden  prune,  Stewart  Ironclad  peach,  Monstrous  medlar,  Prunus 
Simoni,  Butternut. 

C.  S.  Pratt,  Reading,  Mass.:  Dozen  strawberry  plants. 

Geo.  W.  Barkhuff,  Colton,  Wash.:  Cions  of  Washington  pear. 

D.  S.  Grimes,  Denver,  Colo.:  Abies  Englemani. 

Dr.  J.  B.  Pilkington,  Portland,  Ore.:  Two  Nellie  Noyes  peaches. 

A.  J.  Eaton,  Eaton,  Colo.:  Specimens  of  native  plums. 

Fred  G.  Blumhart,  Corvallis,  Ore.:  Cions  of  seedling  apple. 

C.  E.  Hoskins,  Newberg,  Ore.:  Cions  of  new  prune. 

Scott  Morris,  Spikenard,  Ore.:  Bulbs  of  Lilium  Washingtonianum, 
plants  of  Ceanothus,  Manzanita  and  Sugar  pine. 

F.  J.  May,  Avon,  Wash.:  Plants  of  two  varieties  of  dewberry. 

Mark  W.  Johnson  Seed  Company,  Atlanta,  Ga.:  Package  of  beans. 

Idaho  Pear  Company,  Lewiston,  Idaho:  Idaho  pears  and  IXL  apples. 

Boothroyd  & Tonneson,  Tacoma,  Wash.:  Northwest  Horticulturist  tor 
1891. 

E.  W.  Hammond,  Wimer,  Ore.:  Pits  of  Prunus  subcordata. 

D.  M.  Ferry  & Co.,  Detroit,  Mich.:  Package  of  beans. 

— Roesch,  Fredonia,  N.  Y.:  Plants  of  new  gooseberry. 


STATE  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE  AND 
SCHOOL  OF  SCIENCE. 


Experiment  Station, 


PULLMAN,  WASHINGTON. 


Bulletin  7. 


DEPARTMENT  OF  ENTOMOLOGY. 


TWO  INJURIOUS  INSECTS. 

i ' 

i I 


JANUARY,  1893. 


All  Bulletins  of  this  Station  are  sent  free  to  residents  of  the  State. 
Persons  desiring:  their  names  on  our  mailing:  list  should  address 

PRESIDENT,  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE, 

PULLMAN,  WASH. 


OLYMPIA,  WASH.: 

O.  C.  WHITE,  . . . STATE  PRINTER. 

1893. 


STATE  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE  AND 
SCHOOL  OF  SCIENCE. 


Experiment  Station, 

PULLMAN,  WASHINGTON. 


Bulletin  7. 


DEPARTMENT  OF  ENTOMOLOGY. 

TWO  INJURIOUS  INSECTS. 


JANUARY,  1893. 


All  Bulletins  of  this  Station  are  sent  free  to  residents  of  the  State. 
Persons  desiring  their  names  on  our  mailing  list  should  address 

PRESIDENT,  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE, 

PULLMAN,  WASH. 


OLYMPIA,  WASH.: 

O.  C.  WHITE,  . . . STATE  PRINTER. 

1893. 


TWO  INJURIOUS  INSECTS. 


CHAS.  V.  PIPER. 


THE  PEA  WEEVIL. 

Bruchus  pisi. 

A number  of  inquiries  have  been  received  concerning  this  insect, 
which,  for  the  first  time  reported  in  this  state,  was  very  destructive 
in  several  localities  last  year. 

The  insect  causing  the  damage  is  a small  oval  beetle  about  one- 
sixth  of  an  inch  long,  belonging  to  the  family  Bruchidce,  and  can 
be  distinguished  from  other  weevils  by  its  depressed  head,  short 
snout,  and  ten-jointed  antennae.  Its  color  is  a dingy  black  or  dark 
grayish,  more  or  less  marked  with  white  on  the  back.  The  elytra, 
or  wing  covers,  are  shorter  than  the  abdomen,  the  exposed  portion 
of  which  is  white,  with  an  oblong  black  spot  on  each  side  of  the 
tip,  so  that  the  white  portion  somewhat  resembles  a wide  letter  T. 

The  beetles  begin  to  appear  about  the  time  the  peas  are  in  blos- 
som, and  as  soon  as  the  young  pods  are  formed  the  female  proceeds 
to  lay  her  eggs.  She  does  this  by  cutting  minute  slits  in  the  side 
of  the  pod  and  depositing  a single  yellowish  egg  in  each  slit.  As 
this  is  nearly  always  done  at  night,  the  insect  is  but  rarely  seen 
during  this  operation.  In  a few  days  the  eggs  hatch  into  minute 
whitish  larvae  or  grubs,  which  immediately  burrow  through  the 
pod  into  the  pea  opposite.  The  holes  in  the  pod  and  pea  rapidly 
heal,  and  in  a short  time  the  wound  can  scarcely  be  detected. 
After  entering  the  pea,  the  grub  grows  rapidly,  feeding  on  the  soft 
tissues  of  the  young  pea,  and  at  the  time  of  harvest  many  of  them 
have  attained  their  full  size.  Just  before  reaching  its  growth  the 
grub  eats  to  the  surface  of  the  pea,  but  does  not  pierce  the  outer 
skin.  At  this  time  it  is  of  a deep  yellow  color,  excepting  its  black 
head.  Before  the  end  of  summer  the  grub  changes  into  the  pupa,  or 
quiescent  condition.  Some  few  of  these  pupae  hatch  into  the  per- 
fect beetles  the  same  autumn,  but  in  this  latitude  most  of  them  re- 


122 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


main  in  the  peas  all  winter.  If  infested  peas  are  examined  in  the 
spring,  the  “buggy”  ones,  as  they  are  called,  can  easily  be  distin- 
guished by  the  small,  round  black  spot,  which  is  seen  on  one  side. 
Upon  removing  the  skin  of  the  pea  the  beetle  is  seen  within,  appar- 
ently awaiting  an  opportunity  to  come  forth.  If  peas  are  not  planted 
until  late,  many  of  them  do  emerge,  but  as  a rule  the  insects  are  in 
the  peas  at  the  time  of  planting,  and  of  course  just  where  they  will 
do  the  most  damage  as  soon  as  the  plants  are  old  enough.  As  the 
grub  but  rarely  injures  the  germ  of  the  seed,  “buggy”  peas  will 
sprout  as  well  as  perfect  ones,  but  do  not  produce  such  strong 
plants. 

REMEDIES. 

As  most  of  the  weevils  originate  from  the  planted  seed,  it  fol- 
lows that  only  clean  seed  must  be  planted,  or  else  the  insects  in  the 
seed  must  be  destroyed  before  planting.  Any  one  of  the  following 
methods  will  be  found  effective: 

1.  Enclose  the  seed  to  be  treated  in  an  air  tight  box  or  other  con- 
tainer, and  pour  in  a small  amount  of  bi-sulphide  of  carbon,  which 
can  be  obtained  at  any  drug  store.  Keep  the  vessel  tightly  closed 
for  twenty-four  hours,  by  which  time  the  fumes  will  have  killed  all 
the  weevils.  Only  a small  amount  of  the  bi-sulphide  of  carbon  is 
needed,  an  ounce  being  sufficient  for  a bushel  or  more  of  seed. 
This  method  is  used  by  most  seedsmen.  Great  care  should  be 
taken  with  this  substance,  as  its  fumes  are  very  explosive.  Do  not 
use  it  near  a lire  or  exposed  flame  of  any  kind;  even  a lighted  pipe 
is  sufficient  to  cause  an  explosion. 

2.  If  the  seed  be  put  in  water  at  a temperature  of  145°,  for  from 
one  to  two  minutes,  all  the  weevils  will  be  destroyed  without  injur- 
ing the  germinating  powers  of  the  seed.  Oven  heat  of  the  same 
temperature  will  accomplish  the  same  end. 

3.  The  seed  may  be  kept  two  years  in  tight  bags  or  boxes.  All 
the  beetles  emerge  during  the  first  year  and  die  before  the  next 
spring.  Peas  two  years  old  will  sprout  quite  as  well  as  those  one 
year  old. 

Some  farmers  separate  “ buggy”  peas  from  sound  ones  by  placing 
them  in  water,  when  a large  proportion  of  the  infested  seeds  will 
float.  This  is  not  a sure  method,  even  if  all  the  peas  that  float  are 
destroyed. 

Prof.  Weed,  of  the  Ohio  Experiment  Station,  found  that  most  of 
the  weevil  grubs  were  but  half  grown  at  time  of  harvest.  There- 


Bulletin  7. — January , 1893. 


123 


fore,  by  heating  the  peas  as  soon  as  harvested  to  a temperature  of 
145°  for  one  and  one-half  minutes,  the  weevils  will  not  only  be  de- 
stroyed, but  a considerable  part  of  the  edible  portion  of  the  pea 
saved. 

It  is  useless  to  spray  the  pea  vines  with  any  insecticide  for  pea 
weevils,  as  being  in  the  interior  of  the  pods  and  peas,  they  are  out 
of  reach  of  the  poison. 

Finally,  remember  that  your  peas  may  become  infested  from  your 
neighbor’s;  so  see  to  it  that  he  takes  the  same  precautions  as  you  do. 


THE  COTTONY  MAPLE  SCALE. 

Pulvinaria  innumerabilis . 

This  disgusting  insect  has  increased  very  rapidly  in  Western 
Washington  in  the  past  few  years,  and  is  now  found  in  many  local- 
ities. During  early  summer  it  is  very  conspicuous  owing  to  the 
white  fluffy  substance  under  the  gravid  female,  and  it  is  at  this 
time  that  it  attracts  most  attention. 

The  insect  is  a native  of  the  eastern  United  States,  and  has  been 
known  for  many  years;  but  in  the  East  the  insect  has  usually  been 
held  in  check  by  its  natural  enemies,  which,  though  numerous 
enough  in  this  state,  have  not  been  effective. 

The  life  history  of  the  insect  is  as  follows:  During  May  and  June 
the  female  lays  her  eggs,  usually  over  a thousand  in  number,  in  a 
mass  of  white  waxy  fibres,  secreted  from  the  posterior  end  of  her 
body.  As  the  eggs  develop,  they  expand  the  waxy  mass  and  raise 
the  insect’s  body  to  a considerable  angle  with  the  twig  upon  which 
it  rests.  The  eggs  soon  hatch  into  active  larvae,  resembling  lice, 
which  run  about  over  the  plant.  After  the  last  eggs  have  hatched, 
which  is  usually  early  in  July,  the  female  dies,  though  the  tough 
scale  and  the  cottony  substance  cling  to  the  branches  for  a long 
time.  The  young  lice  finally  settle  themselves  along  the  veins  of 
the  leaves,  commonly  on  the  under  side,  insert  their  beaks,  and  be- 
gin to  suck  up  sap.  They  increase  in  size  rapidly,  after  having 
covered  themselves  with  a tough  waxy  substance  for  protection, 
and  reach  their  full  size  during  August.  About  this  time  the 
males,  which  can  be  distinguished  from  the  females  by  their  nar- 
rower form,  change  into  a pupa  and  soon  after  issue  forth  as  a 


124  Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


winged  insect.  The  winged  males  live  but  a few  days  and  then 
die,  after  having  paired  with  the  females.  The  females  never  be- 
come winged  and  seldom,  if  ever,  leave  the  branch  on  which  they 
are  born.  On  the  approach  of  autumn  the  remaining  insects,  which 
are  all  fertile  females,  migrate  from  the  leaves  and  fix  themselves 
to  the  smaller  branches,  nearly  always  on  the  under  side.  After 
the  sap  ceases  to  flow  they  remain  dormant  until  spring,  when  the 
round  of  life  goes  on  as  before. 

In  Western  Washington  we  have  observed  the  insect  on  the  fol- 
lowing cultivated  plants,  viz. : Currant,  gooseberry,  plum,  pear, 
hawthorn,  mountain  ash,  Lombardy  poplar,  and  weeping  willow; 
and  these  natives,  the  flowering  currant  ( Ribes  sanguineum),  the 
upland  willow  (Salix  flavescens),  and  the  swamp  willow  (S.  lasian- 
dra). 

In  the  east  it  attacks  many  other  trees,  notably  the  ‘silver  maple, 
but  strangely  enough  we  have  never  found  it  to  attack  our  native 
maple  ( Acer  macrophyllum) , or  the  sycamore  maple  (A.  pseudo- 
platanus ),  both  of  which  are  abundantly  planted  as  shade  and  orna- 
mental trees.  So,  in  this  state  at  least,  the  name,  cottony  maple 
scale,  would  seem  to  be  a misnomer. 

As  the  female  never  becomes  winged,  it  seems  at  first  sight  to  be 
difficult  to  account  for  the  spread  of  this  insect,  and  as  a rule  it 
does  spread  but  slowly,  as  everyone  who  has  an  infested  tree  on 
his  place  may  have  noticed.  Careful  observations  have  revealed 
the  fact  that  the  young  lice  are  carried  from  tree  to  tree  principally 
by  clinging  to  the  feet  of  birds,  to  spiders,  or  to  other  insects,  and 
much  less  rarely,  by  the  wind.  Planting  infested  trees  among 
others  has  also  done  much  to  spread  this  insect. 

An  infested  tree  always  attracts  numbers  of  other  insects,  such 
as  ants,  which  feed  on  the  sweet  substance,  called  honey  dew,  that 
exudes  from  the  scales;  and  numerous  lady  birds,  which  feed  on  the 
young  lice.  A lampyrid  beetle  ( Podabrus  comes),  is  also  very 
abundant,  together  with  many  ichneumon  flies. 

The  best  method  of  controlling  this  insect  is  to  spray  during 
May  and  June  with  kerosene  emulsion,  which  will  destroy  both  the 
eggs  and  young  lice.  As  the  egg  laying  period  lasts  so  long,  two 
sprayings  will  probably  be  necessary;  one  about  two  weeks  after 
egg  laying  begins  — which  is  when  the  white  cottony  substance  is 
first  seen  — and  the  other,  two  or  three  weeks  later. 

In  the  case  of  currants  and  gooseberries,  the  first  spraying  should 


Bulletin  7.  — January , 1893. 


125 


be  when  the  fruits  are  well  grown,  but  before  they  begin  to  ripen; 
the  second,  after  the  fruit  has  been  picked. 

It  is  useless  to  spray  after  the  lice  have  formed  scales  over  them, 
as  they  are  then  well  protected.  A winter  wash  of  some  lye  solu- 
tion is  effective,  but  makes  laborious  work  to  apply  it  thoroughly. 

The  best  kerosene  emulsion  is  made  as  follows,  as  formulated  by 
Dr.  C.  V.  Riley: 


Kerosene 2 gallons. 

Water 1 1 gallon. 

Common  soap  or  whale  oil  soap i pound. 


Boil  the  water,  together  with  the  soap,  and  pour  boiling  hot  into 
the  kerosene,  churning  violently  with  a force  pump  and  spray  nozzle, 
until  the  mixture  reaches  the  consistency  of  cream.  If  properly 
made,  the  emulsion  will  stand  without  free  oil  rising  to  the  surface. 
For  ordinary  use,  dilute  with  water,  using  one  gallon  of  the  emul- 
sion to  nine  gallons  of  water. 

The  formula  of  Prof.  A.  J.  Cook,  of  Michigan,  is  preferred  by 
some  to  the  Riley  mixture.  It  is  as  follows: 

Kerosene 1 pint. 

Water 2 quarts. 

Soft  soap 1 quart. 

One-fourth  pound  of  hard  soap  may  be  used  instead  of  the  soft 

soap. 

Dissolve  the  soap  in  warm  water  and  mix  with  kerosene,  churn- 
ing thoroughly  with  a force  pump  or  syringe  until  it  becomes  a 
thick,  creamy  mass. 

For  use,  dilute  until  only  one-fifteenth  of  the  mixture  is  kerosene; 
that  is,  add  to  the  above  amount  of  the  emulsion  ten  pints  of  water. 

Many  complain  that  the  kerosene  emulsion  kills  the  leaves.  The 
trouble  is  that  it  has  not  been  properly  prepared.  Some  people  try 
to  make  the  emulsion  by  churning  with  a broad  stick,  which  method 
rarely,  if  ever,  makes  a perfect  emulsion. 

If  any  free  oil  whatever  arises  on  the  emulsion,  it  is  not  properly 
prepared,  and  it  would  be  far  better  not  to  use  it.  By  following 
the  above  formula  carefully,  success  is  certain,  the  main  point  being 
to  churn  thoroughly  and  violently. 

In  spraying  it  is  well  to  remember  that  one  thorough  application 
is  worth  half  a dozen  which  do  not  drench  the  tree  completely. 


126  Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


A FEW  WORDS  TO  FARMERS. 

This  Station  earnestly  desires  that  all  farmers  and  gardeners  com- 
municate with  us  concerning  any  and  all  injuries  caused  by  insects, 
and  solicits  your  aid  and  cooperation,  that  the  work  here  may  be 
supplemented  by  reports  and  observations  from  all  parts  of  the 
state.  It  is  only  by  this  means  that  this  station  can  hope  to  ac- 
complish the  best  results;  for,  diversified  as  our  farming  interests 
are,  it  is  impossible  to  combine  them  all  on  one  farm  or  in  any  one 
portion  of  the  state.  We  want  every  farmer  to  write  concerning 
the  injurious  insects  of  his  section;  we  desire  to  know  what  reme- 
dies you  have  tried  and  whether  they  have  proved  successful  or  not; 
we  particularly  want  to  be  informed  whenever  you  find  an  insect, 
new  to  you,  causing  damage.  We  hope  by  this  means  to  get  a 
definite  idea  of  the  more  pressing  needs  of  Washington  farmers 
toward  the  control  of  dangerous  insects.  Just  as  far  as  we  are 
able,  we  will  take  pleasure  in  answering  all  inquiries  concerning  in- 
sects, injurious  or  otherwise. 

SOME  FACTS  ABOUT  INSECTS. 

Most  insects  can  readily  be  distinguished  by  the  mere  fact  of 
their  having  six  legs.  Spiders,  mites  and  ticks  have  eight  legs,  and 
are  not  insects.  All  insects  pass  through  four  more  or  less  well 
marked  stages  of  existence;  first,  the  egg;  second,  the  larva,  vari- 
ously known  as  caterpillar,  maggot,  grub,  and  frequently,  but  im- 
properly, “worm;”  third,  the  pupa,  which  is  usually  quiescent  and 
dormant,  though  not  rarely  active  and  much  like  the  larva  in  ap- 
pearance; fourth,  the  imago,  or  perfect  insect.  The  larvae  of  in- 
sects are  in  most  cases  destructive,  the  pupae  but  rarely  so,  and  the 
perfect  insects  frequently  so.  Some  few  insects  are  destructive  in 
both  larval  and  perfect  stages.  When  the  complete  life  history  of 
an  insect  is  known,  it  can  then  be  attacked  at  its  most  vulnerable 
point,  which  may  be  in  any  one  of  its  four  stages;  and  if  necessary 
in  all  of  them.  To  this  end  all  observations  on  insects,  of  what- 
ever nature,  are  of  value;  indeed,  some  apparently  trivial  fact  may 
furnish  a clue  to  the  best  method  of  controlling  the  insect.  Farmers 
should  learn  to  distinguish  beneficial  insects,  so  that  in  the  war 
against  pests  they  may  not  be  needlessly  destroyed.  Ladybirds, 
all  ground  beetles,  and  the  ichneumon  and  chalcid  four-winged  flies 
are  the  best  of  the  friends  of  the  agriculturists  and  destroy  hosts  of 


Bulletin  7. — January , 1893. 


127 


pests.  Indeed,  many  dangerous  insects  are  held  entirely  in  check 
by  their  natural  enemies,  though  it  must  be  admitted  cultivation 
gives  the  former  advantages  and  at  the  same  time  militates  against 
the  latter.  Unfortunately,  also,  spraying  with  insecticides  destroys 
both  the  good  and  the  bad,  but  this  cannot  be  avoided.  Inquiries 
concerning  insects  should  always  be  accompanied  by  specimens,  the 
more  the  better. 

DIRECTIONS  FOR  SENDING  INSECTS. 

Adult  insects  should  first  be  killed,  which  can  best  be  done  by 
placing  them  in  alcohol  for  an  hour  or  so,  or  by  putting  them  in  a 
tight  jar  with  a few  drops  of  chloroform.  Then  place  the  speci- 
mens in  a close  tin  or  wooden  box,  packing  them  in  cotton  or  some 
other  soft  material,  so  that  they  will  not  be  broken. 

All  larval  forms  should  be  sent  alive,  care  being  taken  to  put 
with  it  a supply  of  its  food  plant,  enough  to  last  at  least  two  days. 
Do  not  punch  holes  in  the  box,  as  insects  require  very  little  air.  If 
it  is  not  convenient  to  send  the  larva  alive,  kill  it  in  alcohol  and 
pack  in  cotton  saturated  with  alcohol.  The  mailing  rate  on  all 
packages  of  insects  is  one  cent  per  ounce.  To  accompany  the  speci- 
mens, wwite  a letter  containing  all  particulars  concerning  the  insects, 
such  as,  the  date  of  its  appearance;  numbers;  the  part  of  the  plant 
attacked,  whether  root,  stem,  leaf,  flower  or  bud;  the  remedies,  if 
any,  which  you  have  tried;  and,  indeed,  any  notes  whatsoever  con- 
cerning the  insect.  These  may  be  of  great  practical  as  well  as  of 
scientific  value.  All  packages  should  have  the  name  of  the  sender 
plainly  written  on  the  outside,  and  should  be  addressed  to  the  En- 
tomologist, Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Pullman,  Washing- 
ton. 


THE  WASHINGTON  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE 

AND 

SCHOOL  OF  SCIENCE. 


Open  , to  Both  Sexes.  Tuition  Free.  Board  and  other  Expenses  Very  Low. 


DEPARTMENTS  OF  STUDY. 


1.  Agriculture,  Horticulture  and  Forestry.— Illustrated  on  farm,  or- 

chard and  in  laboratory. 

2.  Engineering  and  Physics.— Including  mechanical  and  electrical 

engineering,  with  extensive  practice  in  the  field,  shop  and  labor- 
atory. 

3.  Mathematics  and  Civil  Engineering. — Pure  and  applied  mathematics. 

Field  practice  and  road  engineering  specially  prominent. 

4.  Moral  Philosophy— Political  Economy  and  History.— Original  re- 

search required  in  each  department. 

5.  Botany  and  Zoology.— By  laboratory  method. 

6.  Chemistry,  Geology  and  Mineralogy.-^- With  a well  equipped  labor- 

atory. 

7.  The  English  Language  and  Literature— Constant  practice  in  writing 

and  critical  reading 

8.  Stenography  and  Typewriting  — Daily  practice  in  professional  and 

business  exercises. 

9.  Preparatory  Department. — Two  years’ course,  including  a thorough 

drill  in  arithmetic,  elementary  algebra  and  English. 

FALL  SESSION  OPENS  SEPTEMBER  13, 1893. 

THE  PRESIDENT, 

Pullman,  Wash. 


For  further  information,  address 


' . 


STATE  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE  AND 
SCHOOL  OF  SCIENCE. 


Experiment  Station, 

PULLMAN,  WASHINGTON. 


Bulletin  8. 


Common  Fungous  Diseases  and  Methods  of  Prevention. 

DODDER. 


JUNE,  1893. 


OLYMPIA,  WASH.: 

O.  C.  WHITE,  . . . STATE  PRINTER. 

1894. 


STATE  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE  AND 
SCHOOL  OF  SCIENCE. 


Experiment  Station, 

PULLMAN,  WASHINGTON. 


Bulletin  8. 


Common  Fungous  Diseases  and  Methods  of  Prevention. 

DODDER. 


JUNE,  1893. 


OLYMPIA,  WASH.: 

O.  C.  WHITE,  . . . STATE  PRINTER. 

1894. 


COMMON  FUNGOUS  DISEASES  AND  METHODS  OF  PRE- 
VENTION. 


CHARLES  V.  PIPER. 


Fungous  diseases  of  plants  annually  cause  the  loss  of  many  mil- 
lions of  dollars  to  the  farmers  of  the  United  States.  Within  the 
past  six  years  it  has  been  abundantly  demonstrated  that  much  of 
this  loss  can  be  prevented  by  certain  chemical  fungicides  at  so  small 
a cost  as  to  leave  the  farmer  a handsome  additional  profit.  While 
the  losses  from  these  diseases  in  this  state  have  not  been  very  seri- 
ous, they  have  been  severe  enough  to  demand  earnest  attention. 
Thus  far,  either  from  a mistaken  idea  of  the  amount  of  damage 
really  done,  or  from  ignorance  regarding  methods  of  treatment, 
none  of  these  diseases,  with  the  exception  of  the  grain  smuts,  have 
received  any  attention  whatever  from  the  farmers  of  this  state.  The 
purpose  of  this  bulletin  is  to  describe  in  a brief  and  popular  way  the 
more  common  diseases  of  this  character  which  occur  in  the  state, 
and  the  methods  of  treating  them  which  have  proved  most  suc- 
cessful. 

All  fungous  diseases  are  caused  by  minute  lowly-organized  plants 
called  fungi.  Fungi  are  plants  in  every  sense  of  the  word.  For 
instance  the  fungus  causing  the  “black  knot”  of  the  plum  is  just 
as  rn^uch  a plant  as  the  plum  tree  itself,  though  immensely  lower  in 
the  scale  of  nature.  Fungi  are  entirely  destitute  of  the  green  color- 
ing matter,  chlorophyll,  which  most  plants  possess,  and  upon  which 
their  power  to  change  inorganic  matter  into  vegetable  tissue  de- 
pends. Therefore,  fungi  can  live  only  on  such  matter,  either  living 
or  dead,  which  has  already  been  elaborated  by  other  plants,  or  ani- 
mals. Depending  on  whether  fungi  obtain  their  nourishment  from 
dead  6r  from  living  matter,  they  may  be  divided  into  two  groups, 
namely':  those  which  live  on  dead  matter,  or  saprophytes , such  as 
mushrooms,  moulds,  etc. ; and  those  which  exist  on  living  plants, 
or  parasites.  It  is  the  latter  class,  the  parasitic  fungi,  that  cause 
most  plant  diseases,  and  with  which  we  have  to  deal. 


132 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


The  vegetative  body  of  these  fungi  consists  entirely  of  very 
minute,  transparent  threads,  termed  hyphw , which  ramify  over  the 
surface  of,  or  between,  the  cells  of  their  host  plants,  robbing  them 
of  their  juices  mainly  by  minute  sucking  organs. 

This  continual  drain  on  the  resources  of  the  host  seriously  im- 
pairs its  vitality,  and  frequently  causes  the  death  of  the  tissue  at- 
tached, or  distortions;  in  other  cases  the  whole  plant  succumbs  to 
the  attacks  of  the  fungus. 

All  fungi  reproduce  themselves  by  bodies  called  spores , which  for 
all  practical  purposes  answer  to  the  seeds  of  higher  plants;  most 
species  produce  two,  or  even  more,  kinds  of  spores  at  different  sea- 
sons. Those  earliest  formed  are  called  summer  spores,  or  conidia , 
and  by  their  vast  numbers  and  extreme  lightness  serve  to  spread 
the  fungus  very  rapidly;  other  spores,  called  resting  spores,  are 
more  complex  in  character,  and  tide  the  life  of  the  fungus  through 
the  winter. 

In  many  cases  the  weather  has  a marked  effect  on  the  appearance 
and  abundance  of  fungus  diseases,  but  it  is  in  no  case  the  cause  of 
any  of  these  diseases,  as  still  so  commonly  supposed.  Just  as  cer- 
tain conditions  of  moisture  and  temperature  are  favorable  to  all 
plant  life,  so  they  are  to  fungi,  only  in  the  case  of  the  latter  the  ef- 
fect is  much  more  marked. 

It  has  been  found  that  in  the  presence  of  certain  chemicals,  not- 
ably the  copper  salts,  that  spores  will  not  germinate,  and  it  is  upon 
this  fact  that  the  efficacy  of  the  fungicides  rests.  It  must  be  borne 
in  mind  that  fungicides  are  preventives  only;  not  cures  in  any 
sense  of  the  word.  It  is  equally  out  of  the  question  to  instil  life 
into  tissue  killed  by  fungi,  or  to  kill  fungi  which  are  inside  living- 
tissue  without  injuring  the  host  as  well;  all  we  can  do  is  to  prevent 
the  plant  tissue  from  becoming  diseased  or  killed  by  preventing  the 
germination  and  growth  of  the  spores,  and  this  is  accomplished  by 
keeping  the  plants  covered  with  fungicides  until  danger  of  attack 
is  over.  It  is  a very  common  mistake  to  delay  applying  fungicides 
until  some  sign  of  the  disease  is  visible.  The  mere  fact  that  the 
disease  is  visible,  shows  that  damage  has  already  been  done,  which 
the  earlier  application  would  have  prevented. 

A number  of  different  chemical  mixtures  have  been  used  as  fungi- 
cides with  more  or  less  success,  but  as  there  is  little  to  choose  from 
regarding  the  cost,  we  give  formulas  for  the  two  best  known,  most 
used,  and  probably  most  efficacious. 


Bulletin  8.  — June , 1893. 


133 


BORDEAUX  MIXTURE. 

Copper  sulphate. 6 pounds. 

Lime 4 pounds. 

Water 22  gallons. 

Dissolve  the  copper  sulphate,  pulverized,  in  four  gallons  hot 
water;  in  another  vessel  slack  the  lime  in  four  gallons  water.  Mix 
the  two  together,  stirring  constantly,  and  strain  through  a coarse 
cloth,  such  as  burlap.  Then  add  fourteen  gallons  more  of  water. 

A combined  insecticide  and  fungicide  can  be  prepared  simply  by 
adding  Paris  green  or  London  purple  at  the  rate  of  one  pound  to 
200  gallons  of  the  above  mixture. 


AMMONIA  CAL  SOLUTION  OF  COPPER  CARBONATE. 


Carbonate  of  copper 5 ounces. 

Ammonia  water  (26°) 3 pints. 

Water 40  gallons. 


Dissolve  the  carbonate  of  copper  in  the  ammonia,  using  more  of 
the  latter  if  necessary;  then  pour  the  solution  into  the  water. 

For  a combined  fungicide  and  insecticide  never  add  Paris  green 
to  this  mixture,  as  the  ammonia  disintegrates  it.  London  purple 
may,  however,  be  safely  added.  Mix  one  pound  of  London  purple 
and  one  pound  lime  into  a paste  and  add  to  200  gallons  of  the  mix- 
ture. 

While  we  have  in  most  cases  recommended  the  Bordeaux  mix- 
ture, the  ammoniacal  solution  of  copper  carbonate  is  almost  equally 
effective;  it  is  perhaps  even  better  to  use  in  the  later  sprayings  on 
fruit  trees,  as  it  leaves  no  coating  on  the  fruit,  such  as  the  Bordeaux 
mixture  sometimes  does. 

Both  of  these  preparations  should  be  made  up  only  as  needed,  as 
they  are  most  efficacious  when  fresh. 

The  wholesale  cost,  in  the  cities  of  the  state,  of  the  materials  re- 


quired is  as  follows: 

Copper  sulphate,  100  lb  lots 6c.  to  7c.  per  lb. 

Copper  sulphate,  small  lots 7c.  to  8c.  per  lb. 

Copper  carbonate 40c.  to 45c. per  lb. 

Aqua  ammonia  (26°) 12c.  per  lb. 

Lime $1.25  per  barrel. 


SPRAYING  APPARATUS 

Is  now  so  commonly  used  that  little  need  be  said  concerning  it. 
Many  styles  of  pumps  and  conveyances  for  the  same  are  made  by 
manufacturers  to  meet  the  requirements  for  all  the  various  uses  that 


134 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


spraying  machines  are  likely  to  be  put  to.  The  main  point  to  in- 
sure proper  spraying  is  a good  nozzle.  This  should  be  so  con- 
structed as  to  throw  a fine,  even  spray  which  will  thoroughly  wet 
the  foliage  without  drenching  it,  and  to  be  easily  cleaned  when  it 
becomes  clogged.  The  only  nozzle  that  completely  fills  these  re- 
quirements is  the  Vermorel,  which,  not  being  patented,  can  be 
bought  of  any  dealer.  This  nozzle  throws  the  spray  only  a short 
distance,  but  by  attaching  it  with  sufficient  hose  to  a light,  strong- 
pole  this  difficulty  can  be  obviated  when  necessary.  The  following- 
reliable  firms  manufacture  spraying  apparatus,  and  will  send  cata- 
logues on  application: 

The  Field  Force  Pump  Co.,  Lockport,  N.  Y. 

The  Nixon  Nozzle  and  Machine  Co.,  Dayton,  Ohio. 

William  Stahl,  Quincy,  111. 

The  Gould’s  Manufacturing  Co.,  Seneca  Falls,  N.  Y. 

W.  & B.  Douglas,  Middletown,  Conn. 

Rumsey  & Co.,  Seneca  Falls,  N.  Y. 

Deming  Co.,  Salem,  Ohio. 

F.  E.  Myers  & Bro. , Ashland,  Ohio. 

William  Boekel  & Co.,  518  Vine  street,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

LOOSE  SMUT  OF  OATS. 

Ustilago  aveme,  ( Persoon  . 

This  disease  is  too  well  known  to  need  description.  The  visible 
part  consists  entirely  of  masses  of  black  spores.  Under  the  micros- 
cope these  appear  deep  brown  in  color  and  nearly  globular  in  shape, 
with  thick  walls  covered  with  very  minute  projections.  Most  of 
these  spores  are  blown  off  by  the  winds  before  harvest  and  scat- 
tered through  the  field,  so  that  more  or  less  of  them  are  invariably 
harvested  with  the  oats.  It  is  the  spores  which  cling  to  the  seed 
oats  from  which  the  smut  of  the  next  year  is  produced.  When  the 
seed  oats  germinate  the  smut  spores  also  germinate,  and  within  a 
few  days  the  germinating  tube  of  the  latter  forces  itself  into  the 
young  oat  plant  and  thereafter  continues  to  grow  entirely  within 
the  tissues  of  the  oat  plant  and  to  absorb  its  nourishment  therefrom. 
The  smut  plant  grows  upward  in  the  tissues  of  its  host,  and  when 
the  blossoms  of  the  oat  break  from  their  sheath  the  young  kernel  of 
the  oats  and  a great  deal  of  the  husks  are  seen  to  be  converted  into 
masses  of  spores,  their  substance  having  been  absorbed  by  the  smut 
plant  for  this  purpose. 


Bulletin  8. — June,  1893. 


135 


STINKING  SMUT  OF  WHEAT. 

Tilletia  foetens,  (Berkeley  & Curtis). 

There  are  two  distinct  but  closely  allied  fungi  which  produce 
stinking  smut  in  wheat,  of  which  we  have  seen  only  the  above  in 
this  state.  The  general  characters  of  this  smut  are  quite  similar  to 
those  of  the  oat  smut,  but  it  is  not  at  all  conspicuous  in  the  field, 
as  only  the  kernel  of  the  wdieat  is  transformed  into  spores.  The 
affected  heads  can  usually  be  detected  on  close  examination  by  being 
darker  in  appearance  than  the  healthy  ones.  On  crushing  one  of 
the  affected  heads  between  the  fingers  a very  disagreeable  odor  is 
exhaled,  which  has  been  compared  to  that  of  decaying  fish. 

The  life  histories  of  these  two  smut  fungi  are  practically  identi- 
cal. In  both  cases  the  host  plants  become  affected  from  the  spores 
which  cling  to  their  seeds.  It  follows  then  that  if  these  smut 
spores  can  be  destroyed  without  injuring  the  seed  a crop  free  from 
smut  must  result.  This  is  accomplished  by  most  of  our  farmers  by 

The  Copper  Sitlphate  Treatment. — By  this  method  the  seed  grain 
is  immersed  in  a solution  of  copper  sulphate  for  a greater  or  less 
time  according  to  the  strength  of  the  solution  used.  The  propor- 
tion advised  by  Ivellerman  and  Swingle,  whose  experiments  on  grain 
smuts  have  been  most  exhaustive,  is  one  pound  copper  sulphate 
(pulverized)  to  24  gallons  water.  Allow  the  seed  to  remain  in  this 
solution  12  hours,  after  which  it  should  be  put  from  live  to  ten 
minutes  in  lime  water,  made  by  dissolving  one  pound  good  lime  in 
ten  gallons  water.  Then  spread  the  grain  out  to  dry.  A weak  so- 
lution  of  copper  sulphate  like  the  above  is  much  to  be  preferred  to 
the  stronger  ones  commonly  used,  as  the  latter  seriously  injure  the 
germinating  powers  of  at  least  a portion  of  the  seed. 

The  Hot  Water  Treatment.  — The  efficacy  of  this  method  rests 
on  the  fact  that  water  at  a temperature  of  130  to  135  degrees  Fahren- 
heit completely  destroys  the  smut  spores  without  injuring  the  seed 
grain  in  the  least;  indeed  the  germinating  powers  of  the  latter  are 
considerably  increased. 

To  properly  treat  seed  by  this  method  requires  two  large  tubs; 
the  first  to  contain  water  at  a temperature  of  from  120  to  130  de- 
grees and  the  second  to  contain  water  heated  to  132^  degrees.  A 
thermometer  is  indispensable  to  regulate  the  temperature.  Put  the 
seed  to  be  treated  in  a wicker  basket  or  in  a coarsely  woven  gunny 
sack  and  allow  it  to  soak  for  a few  minutes  in  the  first  tub,  or  until 
thoroughly  wetted.  Then  remove  and  plunge  in  the  second  tub, 


136  Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

stirring  or  kneading  the  grain  so  that  each  single  one  becomes 
thoroughly  scalded;  continue  this  for  15  minutes.  The  most  im- 
portant point  is  to  keep  the  water  in  the  second  tub  at  the  tempera- 
ture of  132^  degrees,  never  allowing  it  to  go  below  130  or  above 
135  degrees.  In  the  former  case  the  smut  spores  would  not  be 
killed;  in  the  latter  the  grain  seed  would  be  injured.  About  half 
a bushel  is  all  that  can  be  treated  properly  at  one  time  in  an  ordi- 
nary large  tub. 

As  soon  as  the  scalding  process  is  over,  the  seed  must  be  cooled 
by  plunging  in  cold  water  or  by  some  similar  method  and  at  once 
spread  out  to  dry. 

We  urge  the  farmers  to  use  one  of  these  twTo  methods  in  prefer- 
ence to  the  stronger  solution  of  copper  sulphate  so  commonly  used, 
and  recommend  the  hot  water  treatment  as  the  best,  as  well  as  the 
cheapest. 

Loose  smut  of  wheat,  which  occurs  only  sparingly  in  the  state, 
cannot  be  prevented  by  any  known  method. 

POTATO  ROT. 

Phytophthora  mfestans,  (Montagne). 

The  well  known  potato  rot  is  a recent  introduction  into  the  state, 
and  so  far  as  our  correspondence  and  observations  show,  is  even 
yet  found  only  in  the  western  part. 

The  disease  first  becomes  noticeable,  usually  in  August,  by  the 
appearance  of  irregular  brown  spots,  which  rapidly  enlarge  and 
soon  cover  the  leaves  and  stems,  causing  their  death.  On  the  un- 
der side  of  the  brown  spots  may  be  seen  a mildew-like  growth,  the 
fruiting  threads  of  the  fungus,  which  produce  vast  numbers  of 
spores. 

The  tubers  become  affected  through  the  stems,  or  more  fre- 
quently, especially  in  wet  weather,  by  the  spores,  which  are  washed 
down  to  them. 

The  treatment  of  the  disease  is  entirely  preventive,  and  consists 
in  spraying  the  vines  with  Bordeaux  mixture.  The  first  applica- 
tion should  be  made  very  soon  after  the  middle  of  July;  the  others 
at  intervals  of  two  or  three  weeks.  If  one  knows  the  disease  from 
its  first  appearance,  the  first  spraying  may  be  delayed  until  the  dis- 
ease actually  appears.  This  will  require  close  inspection  daily  of 
every  part  of  the  field,  as  the  disease  spreads  very  rapidly,  espe- 
cially if  the  weather  is  moist. 


Bulletin  8. — June,  1893. 


137 


Care  must  be  taken  also  to  distinguish  the  genuine  rot  from  a 
second  disease  of  potatoes  which  we  have  found  abundant  in  some 
parts  of  Western  Washington.  This  disease  is  caused  by  the  fun- 
gus Macrosporium  Solani  E.  d M.,  and  can  be  distinguished  from 
the  genuine  rot  by  the  following  facts: 

1.  It  appears  much  earlier,  usually  early  in  July. 

2.  The  spots  it  causes  are  more  or  less  circular  in  outline,  and 
increase  in  size  but  slowly. 

3.  The  spots  are  seen  on  close  inspection  to  contain  a series  of 
concentric  rings,  giving  it,  as  has  been  suggested,  a target-board  ap- 
pearance. 

4.  There  is  never  any  mildew-like  growth  associated  with  the 
spots. 

Even  in  fields  where  this  fungus  is  abundant  it  seems  to  cause 
but  little  damage.  The  leaves  are  not  very  seriously  injured  and 
the  tubers  are  not  at  all  attacked  by  it. 

POTATO  SCAB. 

Oospora  scabies,  Thaxter. 

The  cause  of  potato  scab  has  long  been  a subject  of  controversy, 
and  many  theories  have  been  offered  in  explanation  of  it,  such  as 
mechanical  irritation  of  the  soil,  corrosion  by  lime  or  other  chemi- 
cals in  the  soil,  or  by  manures.  It  is  now  definitely  settled  that 
most  of  the  scab,  in  this  country  at  least,  is  caused  by  a fungus, 
which,  by  its  irritating  effects,  causes  the  potato  to  develop  the 
thick,  corky  covering  that  gives  it  the  scabby  appearance. 

Manures  may,  and  frequently  do,  contain  the  spores  of  the  scab 
fungus  in  abundance,  especially  when  scabby  potatoes  have  been 
fed  to  the  stock,  or  even  when  they  are  allowed  to  grow  on  the 
manure  heap.  Such  manure,  when  applied  to  the  potato  field,  will 
cause  scab  in  the  crop,  and  from  this  fact  arises  the  prevalent  idea 
that  scat)  is  caused  by  the  manure  itself. 

While  the  value  of  the  potatoes  as  food  is  perhaps  not  injured, 
their  keeping  qualities  are,  and  on  account  of  their  unsightly  ap- 
pearance their  market  value  is  lessened.  The  spores  of  the  scab 
fungus  live  for  several  years  in  the  soil,  so  that  infected  ground  is 
sure  to  produce  a more  or  less  scabby  crop. 

A perfectly  clean  crop  can  always  be  grown  on  land  free  from 
scab  germs  if  the  seed  potatoes  are  free  from  scab. 


138 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


If  it  is  necessary  to  plant  scabby  potatoes  they  should  be  sub- 
jected to  the  following  treatment,  which  will  destroy  the  scab 
spores  without  injuring  the  potato:  Dissolve  three  ounces  of  corro- 
sive sublimate  in  three  gallons  of  hot  water.  When  entirely  dis- 
solved, pour  into  a tub  or  other  wooden  vessel  containing  seventeen 
gallons  of  water.  Before  treating  the  seed  potatoes  discard  such 
as  are  deeply  scabbed;  then  place  the  rest,  a half  bushel  at  a time, 
in  a coarse  gunny  sack  and  allow  them  to  remain  an  hour  and  a half 
in  the  solution.  Care  should  be  taken  in  handling  the  corrosive 
sublimate,  as  it  is  a most  violent  poison.  The  solution  should 
always  be  placed  in  wooden  vessels,  as  it  corrodes  metal  very 
rapidly. 

APPLE  SCAB. 

Fusicladium  dendriticum,  (Wallroth). 

This  attacks  the  leaves  and  young  twigs  as  well  as  the  fruit. 
On  the  leaves  it  produces  velvety  spots  of  a dark  olive  green  color; 
on  the  fruit  it  produces  dark  roundish  spots,  which,  when  numer- 
ous, distort  the  fruit  badly  or  even  cause  large  cracks. 

The  fungus  lives  over  winter  on  the  young  twigs,  or  on  the  dead 
fallen  leaves,  and  early  in  spring  produces  numerous  spores  from 
which  the  leaves  and  young  fruit  become  infected. 

The  damage  caused  by  the  fungus  consists  mainly  in  the  un- 
sightly appearance  of  the  fruit,  which  seriously  impairs  its  market 
value;  in  very  bad  cases,  a considerable  amount  of  the  fruit  may 
drop  off  while  very  young. 

The  disease  can  be  almost  entirely  prevented  by  three  or  four 
sprayings  with  Bordeaux  mixture.  The  first  of  these  should  be 
given  before  the  buds  open;  the  second  shortly  after  the  blossoms 
fall,  and  the  others  at  intervals  of  two  weeks. 

By  combining  Paris  green  at  the  rate  of  one  pound  to  twTo  hun- 
dred gallons  of  the  mixture  in  the  second  and  subsequent  sprayings, 
the  damage  caused  by  the  codling  moth  will  also  be  largely  pre- 
vented. 

TWIG  BLIGHT  OF  THE  PEAR  AND  APPLE. 

Bacillus  amylovorus,  (Burvill). 

This  blight  is  caused  by  one  of  the  bacterial  fungi,  the  minutest 
of  organisms.  The  particular  species  causing  this  disease  is  known 
as  bacillus  amylovorus , and  it  exists  in  enormous  numbers  in  the 
diseased  twigs  and  leaves. 


Bulletin  8. — June , 1893. 


139 


Ordinarily,  diseased  twigs  can  be  distinguished  by  the  yellowish, 
thickened  leaves,  which  drop  prematurely,  leaving  the  twig  nearly 
bare  except  for  the  bunch  of  younger  leaves  near  the  summit. 

The  disease  always  appears  first  on  the  youngest  twigs,  and  only 
a few  of  these  on  a tree  may  be  diseased.  Diseased  twigs  or 
branches  seldom  bear  fruit. 

Through  the  researches  of  Waite  it  has  been  demonstrated  that 
the  disease  is  carried  from  tree  to  tree  by  insects,  mainly  bees,  and 
that  the  first  infection  takes  place  in  the  nectaries  at  the  base  of 
the  flower  petals.  From  here  it  spreads  through  the  whole  blossom 
and  thence  to  the  twigs  and  branches  until  the  whole  tree  becomes 
affected  and  finally  dies. 

As  the  cause  of  this  disease  is  mainly  inside  the  tissues  of  the 
plant,  spraying  is  of  little  use.  A thorough  pruning  of  the 
diseased  twigs  and  branches  faithfully  followed  up  will  hold  the 
disease  completely  in  check.  The  twigs  or  branches  should  be  cut 
some  distance  below  the  disease  and  the  prunings  afterwards 
gathered  up  and  burned.  Care  should  be  taken  to  disinfect  the 
pruning  shears  by  dipping  them  occasionally  in  a solution  of  car- 
bolic acid;  otherwise  the  disease  may  be  spread  to  healthy  branches 
or  trees.  When  a tree  is  completely  diseased  it  should  be  dug  up 
aiid  burned. 

PEAR  SCAB. 

Fmicladium  Pyvnium,  (Lib.). 

This  fungus  is  a very  close  relative  to  that  causing  apple  scab, 
and  the  injuries  are  similar. 

It  can  be  prevented  by  the  same  treatment  recommended  for 
apple  scab. 

LEAF  BLIGHT  OF  THE  PEAR, 

Entomosporium  macvlatum,  Leveille. 

This  disease  attacks  the  fruit  and  young  stems  as  well  as  the 
leaves  of  the  pear.  On  the  leaves  it  appears  as  numerous  small 
spots,  deep  red  in  color,  with  a small  black  pustule  in  the  center; 
on  the  fruit  the  spots  are  similar,  and  when  numerous  cause  the 
pear,  by  checking  its  growth,  to  crack. 

The  main  injury  from  the  disease  rests  in  the  premature  fall  of 
the  leaves,  and  sometimes  by  the  distortion  and  falling  of  a con- 
siderable portion  of  the  fruit. 


140 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


The  fungus  lives  through  the  winter  mainly  on  the  fallen  leaves, 
so  the  gathering  and  destroying  of  these  is  advisable. 

Four  sprayings  with  the  Bordeaux  mixture,  the  first  just  before 
the  buds  open,  the  second  after  the  blossoms  fall,  followed  by  the 
others  at  intervals  of  two  weeks,  will  prevent  most  of  the  damage 
caused  by  the  fungus. 

PEACH  DISEASES. 

None  of  the  diseases  of  the  peach  which  we  have  seen  in  the 
state  are  serious  enough  to  demand  treatment.  The  two  commoner 
ones  found  are  the  following: 

Peach  Leaf  Curl  (Taphrina  deformans,  Berkeley). 

This  causes  the  leaves  to  become  red  and  thickened  and  much 
distorted.  A rapid  change  of  temperature  frequently  causes  the 
disease  to  appear  in  abundance.  The  fungus  is  too  deep  seated  to 
be  much  affected  by  fungicides,  but  the  disease  is  seldom  of  suffi- 
cient importance  to  demand  it. 

Peach  Mildew  (Sphaerotlieca  sp?). 

This  is  sometimes  common  in  early  summer,  fairly  whitening  the 
trees,  but  we  have  seen  no  bad  results  from  it.  If  necessary  it  can 
be  checked  with  any  of  the  fungicides,  as  being  wholly  a surface 
growth  it  is  easily  killed. 

BLACK  KNOT. 

Olthia  morbosa,  ( Sehweinitz). 

This  well  known  fungas  has  not,  as  far  as  we  are  aware,  caused 
any  damage  to  the  orchards  of  the  state,  but  as  it  is  a native,  being 
common  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  state  on  the  choke  cherry, 
Enmus  Wirginiana  var.  demissa  (Nuttall),  attention  is  called  to  it 
here.  It  can  easily  be  distinguished  by  the  coal  black  warts  on 
the  branches,  often  a foot  long,  which  it  causes.  Of  cultivated 
trees  it  attacks  both  the  plum  and  the  cherry. 

An  ounce  of  prevention  is  worth  several  pounds  of  cure,  and  a 
little  work  spent  each  year  in  cutting  out  and  burning  the  knots  on 
the  choke  cherry  will  prevent  our  orchards  from  ever  being  at- 
tacked by  this  disease. 

When  one  reflects  that  each  “knot”  produces  millions  of  spores, 
which  are  wafted  about  in  the  slightest  breeze,  the  necessity  of  de- 
stroying them  is  evident. 


Bulletin  8. — June , 1893. 


141 


New  York  state  now  has  a law  compelling  every  land  owner  to 
cut  out  and  burn  every  year  all  black  knots  on  his  land,  whether  on 
wild  or  cultivated  trees.  The  necessity  for  such  a law  does  not 
exist  here,  and  with  a little  care  never  will. 

STRAWBERRY  LEAF  BLIGHT. 

SphsereUa  fragarise,  Saccarclo. 

This  disease  is  also  known  as  leaf  spot,  sun  burn  and  rust.  The 
presence  of  the  fungus  is  first  disclosed  by  the  appearance  of  brick- 
red  spots  on  the  leaves,  surrounded  by  a darker  border.  The  spots 
gradually  enlarge,  and  the  central  portion  becomes  dead  white  in 
color.  When  the  spots  are  numerous,  they  frequently  merge  into 
each  other. 

This  disease  is  native  to  the  state,  being  found  abundantly  on 
our  wild  strawberries;  but  the  ordinary  source  of  infection  is 
through  diseased  nursery  stock.  WThen  the  disease  is  severe, 
nearly  all  the  leaves  are  covered  with  the  spots  and  the  vitality  of 
the  plants  becomes  seriously  impaired. 

The  disease  thrives  much  more  in  wet  or  poorly  drained  land. 

The  disease  can  be  largely  prevented  by  three  or  four  sprayings 
of  Bordeaux  mixture  or  ammoniacal  solution  of  copper  carbonate. 
The  first  spraying  should  be  given  just  after  harvest,  followed  by 
the  others  at  intervals  of  two  weeks. 

A cheaper  and  perhaps  better  method  for  this  state,  especially  as 
the  disease  is  not  very  destructive,  is  as  follows:  Immediately  after 
harvest  mow  the  leaves  close  to  the  ground  and  as  soon  as  dry 
burn,  previously  scattering  straw  over  the  field  if  the  leaves  are  not 
thick  enough  to  carry  the  fire.  This  will  result  in  no  injury  to  the 
plants,  which  at  once  set  up  a new  growth  of  leaves,  while  the  dis- 
ease is  almost  wholly  destroyed. 

This  same  treatment  also  destroys  the  strawberry  leaf  roller, 
phoxopteris  comptana , which  does  more  injury  to  the  strawberry  in 
this  state  than  any  other  insect. 


14:2  Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


DODDER. 


Cuscuta  arveusis,  ( Beyrich ) 

Iii  some  few  cases,  plants  much  higher  in  the  scale  of  nature  than 
the  fungi  are  parasitic  in  habit  and.  cause  serious  injury  to  their 
hosts.  Of  this  nature  are  the  species  of  cuscicta,  or  dodder,  near 
relatives  of  the  common  morning  glory,  although  they  are  com- 
monly spoken  of  as  weeds.  Dodders,  like  most  parasitic  plants, 
are  almost  destitute  of  green  coloring  matter,  chlorophyll , upon 
which  the  power  of  plants  to  change  inorganic  substances  into  veg- 


Fig.  1. — (a)  Stem  of  alfalfa  bearing  the  twining  stem  of  cuscuta  epithymum  with  its 
clusters  of  flowers ; (6)  a single  flower;  (c)  a mature  seed;  (d)  the  embryo ; (e)  ovary;  (/) 
a stamin  with  its  scale. 


Bulletins. — June , 1893. 


143 


etable  tissue  depends,  and  are,  therefore,  entirely  dependent  on  the 
juices  of  their  host  plants  for  existence. 

The  accompanying  cut  (Fig.  1),  well  represents  the  appearance 
of  dodder.  The  stems  are  orange  yellow  in  color  and  the  flowers 
white. 

Last  spring  we  received  from  Mr.  R.  M.  Horner,  Waitsburg, 
.specimens  of  a dodder  (which  proves  to  be  C.  arvensis ) with  the 
statement  that  it  was  injuring  his  alfalfa  and  asking  for  remedies. 

We  advised  Mr.  Horner  to  sprinkle  the  dodder  with  a solution  of 
iron  sulphate  (green  vitriol)  as  recommended  by  Beal. 

The  result  of  the  experiment  and  answers  to  further  questions  is 
contained  in  the  following  letter: 

Waitsburg,  Wash.,  September  4,  18953. 
Prof.  G.  V.  Piper , Pullman,  Wash.: 

Dear  Sir  — I mail  you  to-day  specimens  of  the  dodder  on  alfalfa.  I 
tried  sulphate  of  iron,  | pound  to  one  gallon  of  water,  and  also  one 
pound  to  oue  gallon,  but  with  no  success.  The  branches  of  dodder  were 
killed  but  soon  threw  out  new  ones.  The  chemical  did  not  injure  the 
alfalfa. 

1.  In  answer  to  your  question,  I did  not  notice  the  field  last  year,  but 
what  I sowed  this  year  is  badly  affected. 

2.  I have  heard  of  but  one  neighbor  whose  alfalfa  is  affected. 

3.  I bought  seed  both  last  year  and  this  from  a Walla  Walla  seedsman. 
I have  since  been  told  that  he  keeps  two  grades  of  alfalfa  seed,  the  first 
being  clean,  but  he  never  intimated  such  a thing  to  me. 

4.  I think  about  10  per  cent,  of  my  crop  is  affected. 

Yours  truly,  R.  M.  Horner. 

From  the  above  it  would  appear  that  the  sulphate  of  iron  is  of 
little  use.  A solution  of  calcium  sulphite  in  water  is  said  to  be 
used  in  Europe  to  kill  the  dodder  with  perfect  success. 

Better,  however,  than  any  remedies  are  methods  of  prevention. 
The  simplest  of  these  would  be  a rotation  of  crops;  for  instance, 
planting  wheat  or  oats  where  the  affected  alfalfa  was  the  year  be- 
fore. This  dodder  can  only  live  on  alfalfa  or  closely  related  plants 
like  the  clovers.  If  after  the  germination  of  the  seed  the  young 
dodder  plant  cannot  twine  about  alfalfa  or  clover,  it  must  perish 
for  lack  of  nourishment,  and  consequently  the  field  will  be  freed 
from  the  pest.  Care  should  likewise  be  taken  to  plant  only  clean 
alfalfa  seed.  If  doubt  exists  as  to  the  seed  being  clean,  send  a 
sample  to  this  station  for  examination.  As  the  alfalfa  seed  is  con- 


144  Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


siderably  larger  than  that  of  the  dodder,  the  two  can  be  separated 
by  a sieve  of  the  proper  size. 

Besides  the  above,  there  are  three  other  species  of  dodder  native 
to  the  state.  None  of  these  however  live  on  leguminous  plants, 
and  judging  from  their  hosts  are  not  likely  to  trouble  cultivated 
crops. 


Fig.  2. — (a)  Flower  of  cuscuta  arvensis;  (6)  a stamin  with  its  scale;  (c)  ovary;  (d)  em- 
bryo of  alfalfa. 

Figure  2 shows  the  characters  of  the  flowers  of  cuscuta  arvensis 
sufficiently  well  to  distinguish  it  from  other  species. 


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STATE  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE  AND 
SCHOOL  OF  SCIENCE. 


Experiment  Station, 


PULLMAN,  WASHINGTON. 


Bulletin  9. 


DEPARTMENT  OF  CHEMISTRY. 

STJ GAR  BEETS. 

BY  ELTON  FULMER,  A.  M. 


All  Bulletins  of  this  Station  are  sent  free  to  residents  of  the  State. 
Persons  desiring  their  names  on  our  mailing  list  should  address, 

PRESIDENT  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE, 

PULLMAN,  WASHINGTON. 


OLYMPIA,  WASH.: 

O.  C.  AVHITE,  . . . STATE  PRINTER. 

1894. 


STATE  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE  AND 
SCHOOL  OF  SCIENCE. 


Experiment  Station, 

PULLMAN,  WASHINGTON.  . 


Bulletin  9. 


DEPARTMENT  OF  CHEMISTRY. 

STJOAB  BEETS. 


BY  ELTON  FULMER,  A.  M. 


AH  Bulletins  of  this  Station  are  sent  free  to  residents  of  the  State. 

Persons  desiring  their  names  on  our  mailing  list  should  address, 

PRESIDENT  AGRICULTURAL.  COLLEGE, 

PULLMAN,  WASHINGTON. 


OLYMPIA,  WASH.: 

. . STATE  PRINTER. 

1894. 


O.  C.  WHITE,  . 


PREFACE. 


This  bulletin  is  not  put  forth  as  the  results  of  purely  original 
investigation.  Many  of  the  facts  concerning  the  general  history  of 
the  sugar  beet  industry  in  Europe  and  in  the  United  States  were 
obtained  from  Bulletin  27,  Chemical  Division  of  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture.  Several  other  sources  have  contributed 
facts  and  statistics.  Much,  also,  contained  in  this  bulletin  has 
been  derived  from  my  own  experience  in  and  observation  of  the 
industry.  The  only  object  of  the  bulletin  is  to  put  those  engaged 
in  agriculture  in  Washington  in  possession  of  facts  and  statistics 
concerning  the  sugar  beet  industry,  with  the  hope  that  they  may 
be  stimulated  to  cooperate  with  the  experiment  station  in  working 
out  the  problem  for  Washington. 


Elton  Fulmer. 


SUGAR  BEETS. 


BY  ELTON  FULMER,  A.  M. 


During  the  last  five  years  the  question  of  sugar  beet  culture  and 
the  manufacture  of  beet  sugar  has  received  more  or  less  attention 
from  scientists,  farmers,  manufacturers  and  capitalists,  in  many 
portions  of  the  United  States.  These  problems  have  excited  a very 
wide  spread  interest,  and  much  energy  has  been  directed  toward 
their  solution.  Unfortunately,  or  perhaps  fortunately,  these  prob- 
lems are,  to  a certain  extent,  local  in  character.  No  one  solution 
will  answer  for  all  conditions  of  soil,  climate  and  cultivation.  A 
large  number  of  the  states  have  carried  on  investigations  in  field  and 
laboratory  to  determine  whether  or  not  sugar  beets  could  be  raised, 
sufficiently  rich  in  sugar,  and  great  in  yield,  to  warrant  the  estab- 
lishment of  beet  sugar  factories.  In  some  cases  these  investigations 
have  been  too  local,  spasmodic  and  incomplete  to  be  of  any  real 
value.  In  other  cases  the  results  have  seemed  to  prove  that  cli- 
matic conditions  and  peculiarities  of  soil  would  forever  preclude 
the  possibility  of  establishing  a successful  beet  sugar  industry.  In 
still  other  cases  it  has  been  found  that  all  the  conditions  are  favor- 
able to  sugar  beet  culture. 

Negative  knowledge  is  sometimes  of  even  more  value  than  posi- 
tive knowledge.  It  is  equally  important  for  those  interested  in 
agriculture  in  any  state  to  know  that  sugar  beets  cannot  be  success- 
fully raised,  as  it  is  for  them  to  know  the  positive  side  of  the 
question. 

No  one  attempts  to  dispute  or  question  the  incalculable  bene- 
fits that  will  accrue  if  many  of  our  states  can  become  producers  of 
sugar.  As  regards  our  own  state,  we  know  that  the  climatic  con- 
ditions render  impossible  the  successful  culture  of  sugar  cane.  We 
do  not  know  what  effect  our  conditions  of  soil,  climate  and  mois- 
ture will  have  on  the  culture  of  sugar  beets.  No  one  can  fail  to 
see,  however,  the  importance  of  demonstrating  in  a practical  way 
what  these  conditions  will  do  toward  the  culture  of  beets  for  the 


6 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


manufacture  of  sugar ; for  it  is  a stern  fact  that  we  may  be  able  to 
grow  beets  that  are  of  best  quality  for  cattle  food,  but  positively  of 
no  value  for  the  manufacture  of  sugar. 

The  success  of  the  entire  beet  sugar  industry  depends  upon  the 
production  of  superior  beets;  and  the  best  beets  are  those  which 
give  at  the  same  time  the  best  yield  and  are  of  the  best  quality. 
Authorities  agree  that  no  one  variety  of  seed  can  possibly  be  suited 
to  all  conditions  of  soil  and  climate,  or  to  all  kinds  of  cultivation 
and  fertilization.  No  more  is  it  to  be  expected  that  every  portion 
of  our  state  is  adapted  to  sugar  beet  culture.  The  sets  of  condi- 
tions vary  so  much  in  different  portions.  One  set  of  conditions 
may  be  just  right  and  another  set  entirely  wrong. 

It  is  but  natural  to  ask,  if  the  conditions  as  we  find  them  are  not 
suitable,  may  we  not  change  them?  It  may  he  possible.  The  cli- 
mate we  must  take  as  we  find  it.  We  cannot  control  the  changes 
in  temperature.  We  may  supply  a deficiency  in  moisture,  and  it  is 
possible  to  modify  the  soil  conditions.  But  in  order  to  make  these 
modifications  a large  amount  of  experimental  and  analytical  work 
must  be  performed. 

It  is  with  the  view  of  answering  some  of  these  questions,  and 
helping  to  solve  these  problems,  that  the  Washington  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station  is  preparing  a sugar  beet  campaign  for  the 
coming  season.  We  believe  that  the  best  and  only  way  to  deter- 
mine whether  any  given  portion  of  the  state  is  adapted  to  raising 
beets  for  sugar , is  to  plant  seed  in  that  portion,  take  the  right  kind 
of  care  of  the  plant  from  its  germination  to  maturity,  and  then  de- 
termine the  character  of  the  resulting  beet,  not  by  guess  work,  but 
by  actual  analysis. 

The  beet  sugar  industry,  although  old  in  Europe,  is  still  in  its 
infancy  in  the  United  States.  So  much  has  been  written  of  late 
concerning  it  that  one  is  hardly  excusable  for  ignorance  of  its  his- 
tory and  present  status.  However,  a brief  sketch  of  its  early  his- 
tory and  subsequent  checkered  career  may  not  be  entirely  devoid 
of  interest,  or  out  of  place. 

HISTORY  IN  EUROPE. 

In  1747,  Margraff,  a member  of  the  Berlin  Academy  of  Sciences, 
succeeded  in  obtaining  crystallizable  sugar  from  beets.  But  im- 
perfect methods  of  extraction,  and  the  prevailing  low  price  of  sugar, 
made  it  impossible  to  manufacture  it  profitably  from  beets. 


Bulletin  9. — 1893. 


Half  a century  passed  by  before  anything  more  of  importance 
was  done.  Then,  Achard,  who  was  one  of  Margraff’s  pupils,  took 
up  the  matter  in  France,  in  1797.  His  results  in  extracting  sugar 
from  beets  greatly  astonished  the  people,  and  the  papers  of  that 
time  abounded  in  caricature  and  ridicule.  But  Achard  worked  on 
and  succeeded  in  arousing  public  interest,  not  only  in  France,  but 
also  in  Germany.  In  a very  short  time  many  workers  in  both 
countries  were  meeting  with  some  success  in  their  efforts  to  improve 
the  method  of  extraction.  The  matter  continued  to  receive  the  at- 
tention of  the  people,  and  finally  royalty  became  interested.  In 
1811  Napoleon  issued  a decree  in  which  a commission,  which  had 
been  previously  appointed,  was  authorized  to  establish  six  experi- 
mental schools  for  giving  instruction  in  the  manufacture  of  beet 
root  sugar.  In  1812  a second  decree  provided  for  the  creation  of 
four  imperial  beet  sugar  factories.  The  French  minister  of  the  in- 
terior, in  his  report  upon  the  condition  of  the  empire  at  the  begin- 
ning of  1813,  stated  that  during  the  year  past,  7,700,000  pounds  of 
beet  sugar  had  been  made,  being  the  output  of  334  factories;  and 
that  the  average  cost  of  manufacture  was  about  15  cents  per  pound. 

During  this  time  the  industry  had  also  assumed  commanding 
proportions  in  Germany;  but  the  war  wTith  Russia  which  soon  fol- 
lowed, completely  crushed  it,  and  it  was  not  revived  again  until 
after  1835. 

The  history  of  the  beet  sugar  industry  in  Europe,  taken  in  detail, 
illustrates  in  a very  striking  way  how  chemical  skill  may  overcome, 
as  it  were,  the  perversities  of  climate  in  order  to  establish  a na- 
tional industry  upon  a firm  basis. 

From  1835  to  the  present  time  there  has  been  a steady  increase 
in  the  number  of  factories,  and  in  the  acreage  devoted  to  beet  cul- 
ture. The  conditions  have  so  changed  that  now  beet  sugar  is  sub- 
ject to  an  internal  tax,  instead  of  receiving,  as  at  first,  a bounty 
from  the  government.  There  are  now  about  2,500  beet  sugar  fac- 
tories in  Europe,  and  an  area  of  3,000,000  acres  devoted  to  beet 
culture.  About  30,000,000  tons  of  beets  are  produced  annually, 
which  yield  about  3,600,000  tons  of  sugar.  From  the  small  begin- 
nings made  by  Achard  in  1797,  the  industry  has  grown  on  Euro- 
pean soil  to  amazing  proportions.  The  sugar  production  for  the 
season  of  1891-92  was  as  follows:  Germany,  1,280,000  tons;  Aus- 
tria, 850,000;  France,  750,000;  Russia,  530,000;  Belgium,  296,- 
000;  Holland,  50,000;  total , 3,756,000  tons. 


8 Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

HISTORY  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

Although  the  beet  sugar  industry  has  been  such  a profitable  one 
for  so  many  years  in  France,  Germany,  Austria  and  Russia;  while 
with  them  it  has  been  carried  to  such  astonishing  lengths,  we  have 
stood  idly  by,  an  importer  and  consumer  instead  of  producer;  fail- 
ing to  profit  by  European  knowledge  and  experience.  It  is  true 
that  at  a comparatively  early  date,  as  well  as  at  later  times,  at- 
tempts were  made  to  establish  the  enterprise  in  America.  Un- 
fortunately, in  nearly  every  case,  conclusions  were  based  on 
insufficient  evidence,  and  steps  taken  without  first  counting  the  cost. 

As  early  as  1830,  experiments  were  inaugurated  in  Pennsylvania 
by  two  men  who  seem  to  have  been  entirely  ignorant  of  the  essen- 
tial requirements  of  success,  and  who,  very  naturally,  met  with 
complete  failure. 

In  1838,  the  second  attempt  to  manufacture  beet  sugar  on  a com- 
mercial scale,  in  America,  was  made  by  David  Lee  Child,  at  North- 
ampton, Mass.  Mr.  Child  had  previously  visited  Europe  to  study 
the  subject  of  sugar  production,  and  hence  had  some  knowledge  of 
it.  But  he  was  unable  to  obtain  the  working  details  of  the  recently 
invented  method  of  drying  the  roots,  then  in  use  in  Germany,  and 
was  obliged  to  use  a method  of  his  own,  which  was  not  entirely 
satisfactory.  Only  about  1,300  pounds  of  sugar  were  made  at  this 
plant.  It  is  stated  that  the  cost  of  culture  in  the  Connecticut  river 
valley  was  $42  per  acre;  the  average  yield  from  13  to  15  tons  per 
acre;  the  cost  of  making  sugar  11  cents  per  pound;  and  that  the 
beets  yielded  6 per  cent,  of  sugar  and  2^  per  cent,  of  molasses. 

Nothing  more  of  importance  was  done  in  connection  with  this 
industry  until  1863,  when  works  were  established  at  Chatsworth, 
Illinois,  by  the  Gennert  Brothers.  But  here,  a combination  of  bad 
management,  ignorance  of  the  business,  improper  culture,  excessive 
rain  during  one  season,  and  prolonged  drouth  during  another,  to- 
gether with  wrong  conditions  of  soil  and  climate,  brought  about 
almost  total  failure  after  nearly  six  years  of  discouraging  work. 
With  the  hope  of  better  things,  the  plant  was  finally  moved  to 
Freeport,  in  the  same  state.  No  better  results  followed.  It  could 
not  be  otherwise  inasmuch  as  the  two  prime  factors  of  success — -a 
proper  soil  and  climate  — were  lacking.  Part  of  this  machinery 
was  finally  moved  to  Black  Hawk,  Wisconsin,  but  the  enterprise 
was  doomed  to  failure  there,  as  elsewhere. 

The  first  really  good  results  were  obtained  at  Fond  du  Lac,  Wis- 


Bulletin  9. — 1893. 


9 


consin,  by  Messrs.  Bonesteel  and  Otto.  But  their  means  were 
limited,  and  when  they  received  an  offer  of  the  management  of  the 
Alvorado  Sugar  Co.,  in  California,  they  accepted  it.  Although 
this  company  had  a capital  of  $250,000,  an  unsuccessful  struggle  of 
several  years  finally  resulted  in  financial  failure,  and  operations 
were  suspended  in  1876.  Several  other  companies  were  organized 
in  California  between  1870-80,  but  all  met  with  failure.  Factories 
were  also  established  in  Maine  and  Delaware,  but  these  met  with 
the  universal  fate.  The  Alvorado  company  was  finally  reorganized 
in  1879,  and  has  been  in  successful  operation  from  the  very  start. 

Six  factories  are  now  operating  successfully  in  the  United  States; 
at  Alvorado,  Chino  and  Watsonville,  in  California;  at  Lehi  City,  in 
Utah;  and  at  Grand  Island  and  Norfolk,  in  Nebraska. 

HISTORY  IN  NEBRASKA. 

In  1868  Dr.  Thorpecher,  who,  as  a native  of  Germany,  had  some 
knowledge  of  the  beet  sugar  industry,  obtained  some  seed  from 
Washington,  D.  C.  A single  trial  was  sufficient  to  show  that  sugar 
beets  would  grow  well  in  Nebraska.  Analysis  also  showed  that 
the  beets  raised  that  year  contained  from  8 to  10  per  cent,  of  sugar 
when  grown  on  high  land,  and  from  12  to  15  percent,  when  grown 
in  the  Platte  river  valley.  A few  years  later  several  parties  be- 
came interested  in  the  matter  and  proposed  the  erection  of  a fac- 
tory. Some  time  before  this  there  had  been  a complete  failure  in 
Canada,  and  it  was  found  that  the  machinery  could  be  purchased 
for  $25, 000- — less  than  one-eighth  of  its  original  cost.  Prepara- 
tions were  made  to  transfer  this  machinery  to  a certain  point  in 
Hall  county.  Just  about  this  time  it  was  learned  that  the  import 
duty  from  Canada  would  be  $75,500.  Upon  learning  this  fact  the 
enterprise  was  abandoned. 

During  1888  a considerable  amount  of  seed  was  planted  in  dif- 
ferent portions  of  the  state,  and  the  beets  grown  from  it  gave  very 
satisfactory  results,  yielding  a sugar  content  of  12  to  18  per  cent. 

In  the  spring  of  1889,  the  chemical  department  of  the  state  ex- 
periment station  ( with  which  the  writer  at  that  time  was  connected), 
began  a series  of  investigations  similar  to  those  now  proposed  for 
this  state,  the  object  being  to  ascertain  if  the  soil,  climate  and  other 
conditions  were  such  as  would  make  the  state  adapted  to  sugar  beet 
culture.  These  investigations  were  carried  on  with  great  care,  and 
extended  into  all  parts  of  the  state.  The  results  proved  conclu- 


10 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


sively  that  Nebraska  soil  could  produce  beets  sufficiently  rich  in 
sugar  to  be  used  in  its  manufacture. 

Meanwhile,  parties  in  Hall  county  had  not  been  idle;  and  it  was 
finally  decided  that  a factory  should  be  ereoted  at  Grand  Island. 
After  a great  many  efforts  a contract  was  at  last  closed  between  the 
Grand  Island  Improvement  Company  and  Mr.  H.  T.  Oxnard.  Be- 
fore this  contract  was  closed,  however,  the  state  legislature  had 
provided  for  a bounty  of  one  cent  per  pound  on  all  sugar  manufact- 
ured in  the  state  from  beets  grown  in  the  state  — all  of  the  bounty 
going  to  the  manufacturer  and  none  to  the  beet  grower. 

The  conditions  of  the  contract  were  as  follows:  The  Improve- 
ment Company  agreed  to  donate  forty  acres  of  land  near  the  city  of 
Grand  Island  for  a factory  site;  to  pay  all  taxes  for  the  years 
1891-92;  to  furnish  5,000  acres  of  land  for  raising  beets,  at  a price 
of  not  to  exceed  $15  for  unimproved,  and  not  over  $25  per  acre  for 
improved  land;  and  lastly,  to  guarantee  the  growing  of  3,000  acres 
of  beets  for  three  years.  Mr.  Oxnard  agreed  to  pay  $3  per  ton  for 
beets  containing  12  per  cent,  of  sugar,  and  25  cents  more  per  ton 
for  each  additional  per  cent,  of  sugar.  The  contract  was  signed 
December,  5,  1889,  and  work  was  begun  at  once.  The  factory  was 
ready  to  begin  work  in  the  fall  of  1890. 

SUGAR  OUTPUT  IN  NEBRASKA. 

The  Grand  Island  factory  has  now  finished  its  fourth  campaign, 
its  total  output  of  sugar  being  6,009,800  lbs.,  produced  as  follows: 


Pounds. 

1890  756,300 

1891  1,318,600 

1892  2,101,000 

1893  1,833,900 


These  figures  show  that  the  amount  of  sugar  produced  annually 
has  steadily  increased  until  last  year,  when  there  was  a decrease  of 
245,100  pounds,  owing  to  the  failure  of  the  farmers  to  raise  as 
many  beets  as  were  desired.  It  is  a strange  fact  that  in  spite  of 
the  profits  reaped  by  the  few  who  have  made  beet  raising  a promi- 
nent feature  of  their  farming,  and  who  have  performed  the  work 
necessary  to  produce  beets  for  sugar , the  majority  of  those  engaged 
in  farming  look  upon  the  industry  with  disfavor  and  suspicion. 
Notwithstanding  the  statistics  showing  the  profits  of  beet  raising, 
the  farmers  of  Nebraska  have  been  slow  in  deciding  to  take  up 
sugar  beet  culture.  This  was  perhaps  the  worst  difficulty  the  man- 
ufacturers encountered;  but  they  were  equal  to  the  occasion,  and 


Bulletin  9. — 1893. 


11 


began  raising  beets  themselves.  Last  year  they  had  1,185  acres  in 
beets.  In  attempting  to  explain  why  most  of  the  farmers  assumed 
such  an  attitude  to  the  industry  it  must  be  remembered  that  it  was 
something  new,  and  also  that  the  bounty  offered  by  the  state  was 
all  for  the  manufacturer.  Hence,  it  was  only  natural  that  feelings 
of  jealousy  should  spring  up  and  prevent  cooperation  between  the 
farmer  and  manufacturer.  Had  the  bounty  offered  there  been  di- 
vided as  it  is  in  Washington,  one-half  going  to  the  beet  grower  and 
one-half  to  the  manufacturer,  much  of  the  above  mentioned  diffi- 
culty would  not  have  existed.  However,  a turning  point  seems  to 
have  been  reached  now,  and  hearty  cooperation  will  doubtless  be 
soon  realized. 

The  factory  at  Norfolk  was  built  in  1891,  and  has  been  very  suc- 
cessful from  the  beginning.  The  output  for  last  year  was  between 
5,000,000  and  6,000,000  pounds  of  sugar. 

PRICES  PAID  FOR  BEETS. 

In  1890  and  1891  the  following  prices  were  paid  for  beets:  For 
those  containing  12  per  cent,  of  sugar  and  having  a * purity  coeffi- 
cient of  80,  $3  per  ton;  for  those  containing  13  per  cent,  of  sugar 
and  same  purity  coefficient,  $3.25;  and  25  cents  more  per  ton  for  each 
additional  per  cent,  of  sugar,  the  coefficient  of  purity  remaining  the 
same.  In  1892  $4  per  ton  was  paid  for  beets  containing  12,  13  and 
14  per  cent,  of  sugar,  and  having  a purity  coefficient  of  80;  and  50 
cents  more  per  ton  for  each  additional  per  cent,  of  sugar  and  same 
purity  coefficient.  In  1893  the  company  paid  $5  per  ton  straight, 
regardless  of  sugar  content. 

HISTORY  IN  WASHINGTON. 

For  some  years  past  sugar  beets  have  been  raised  in  various  sec- 
tions of  the  state  which,  we  are  told,  contained  a high  percentage 
of  sugar. 

In  a letter  written  by  Mr.  E.  Meeker,  of  Puyallup,  Washington, 
and  published  in  Bulletin  27,  Division  of  Chemistry,  U.  S.  De- 
partment of  Agriculture,  it  is  stated  with  reference  to  Western 
Washington,  that  the  beets  raised  there  in  1890  were  rich  in  sugar, 
and  unusually  pure.  Sixty-five  (65)  tons  are  said  to  have  been 
raised  on  two  acres  of  land,  at  a cost  of  $2.25  per  ton,  or  $73.12 
per  acre.  Had  these  beets  been  sold  at  $5  per  ton,  there  would 
have  been  a net  profit  of  $89.38  per  acre.  This  same  letter  also 

*Tlie  coefficient  of  purity  is  the  ratio  of  sugar  to  the  other  solids  in  the  juice  of  the 
beet.  For  example,  if  in  100  parts  of  the  solids  in  the  juice  there  are  80  parts  of  sugar  the 
coefficient  of  purity  is  said  to  be  80. 


12 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


states  that  Mr.  T.  M.  Alvord,  of  White  River,  had  raised  100  tons 
of  beets  per  year,  for  five  years,  at  a cost  of  $2.50  per  ton,  the  yield 
being  20  tons  per  acre.  Nothing  is  said,  however,  about  the  sugar 
content  and  purity  as  shown  by  actual  analysis.  It  is  also  stated 
that  none  of  the  land  of  Eastern  Washington  is  suited  to  sugar  beet 
culture,  because  of  an  excess  of  alkali  in  the  soil.  This  statement, 
however,  does  not  seem  to  be  supported  by  the  facts  in  the  case. 

Bulletin  33,  of  the  Division  of  Chemistry,  states  that  in  1891, 
eleven  samples  of  feeets  from  Washington  were  received  for  analy- 
sis at  Washington,  D.  C.  These  eleven  samples  represented  six 
counties,  as  follows:  Lewis,  3;  Snohomish,  1;  Spokane,  1;  Stevens, 
2;  Whatcom,  2;  Whitman,  2.  The  average  sugar  content  was  found 
to  be  14.47  per  cent.,  and  the  average  coefficient  of  purity,  83.9. 

Bulletin  36,  also  of  Division  of  Chemistry,  shows  that  in  1892, 
fourteen  samples  wTere  analyzed  from  our  state,  the  samples  coming 
from  four  counties  as  follows:  Douglas,  2;  Spokane,  5;  Stevens, 
2;  Whitman,  5.  With  reference  to  these  samples,  it  is  reported  as 
follows:  Average  percentage  of  sugar,  14.52;  average  purity  co- 
efficient, 76.8;  average  yield  per  acre,  14.32  tons;  average  weight 
of  beets,  18  ounces. 

Through  the  courtesy  of  Hon.  John  R.  Reavis,  of  Spokane,  we 
are  able  to  state  the  results  obtained  from  beets  sent  to  Washing- 
ton, D.  C.,  in  December,  1893.  These  beets  were  grown  by  Mr. 
E.  H.  Morrison,  of  Fairfield,  and  represent  four  different  varieties 
of  beets.  The  results  are  as  follows: 


No. 

Variety  of  beet. 

Average 
weight  of 
beet. 

Per  cent, 
sugar  in 
juice. 

Coefficient 
of  purity. 

1... 

" ' 

Klein  Wanzlebener 

8.02 

18.7 

84.9 

2... 

Klein  Wanzlebener 

14.9 

77.9 

3... 

Klein  Wanzlebener 

11.5 

15.5 

79.5 

A... 

Klein  Wanzlebener 

22.25 

13.9 

77.7 

5... 

Vilmorin’s  Richest 

20.25 

14.0 

76.9 

6... 

Vilmorin’s  Richest 

15.0 

80.7 

Knauer’s  Imperial 

15.3 

78.1 

8... 

Florimond  Desprez 

18.25 

16.8 

86.2 

9... 

Florimond  Desprez 

17.25 

13.8 

78.8 

10... 

Vilmorin  Amelioree 

6.75 

17.1 

85.0 

11... 

Vilmorin  Amelioree 

6.25 

16.4 

85.4 

Bulletin  9. — 1893. 


13 


These  results  give  an  average  sugar  content  of  14.8  per  cent. , 
and  average  purity,  81. 

These  are  all  the  reliable  statistics  that  could  be  obtained  regard- 
ing what  has  already  been  done  with  beet  culture  in  Washington. 
None  can  deny  but  that  the  results  thus  far  obtained  are  most  en- 
couraging. They  are  good  as  far  as  they  go,  but  do  not  go  far 
enough. 

DOES  BEET  RAISING  PAY? 

It  is  self  evident  that  a farmer  should  not  raise  crops  that  do  not 
pay.  Whether  beet  raising  will  be  a good  paying  enterprise  in 
Washington  can  only  be  determined  by  trial.  Reports  from  Wat- 
sonville, California,  show  that  for  1891  the  average  yield  per  acre 
for  beets  was  between  13  and  14  tons,  and  the  average  price  paid 
$5  per  ton.  The  cost  of  production,  not  including  rent  of  land,  was 
from  $26  to  $40  per  acre.  It  was  considered  that  the  average  net 
profit  per  acre  was  not  less  than  $30.  Statistics  from  Alvorado  for 
the  same  year  show  the  average  yield  to  have  been  15  tons  per  acre, 
and  the  average  price  paid  per  ton,  $5.  The  cost  of  production  was 
estimated  at  $46  per  acre,  thus  leaving  a net  profit  per  acre  of  $29. 
The  average  yield  in  Utah  for  the  same  year  was  12  tons  per  acre, 
and  the  price  paid,  $5  per  ton.  After  deducting  the  cost  of  pro- 
duction, the  average  net  profit  was  $20. 54  per  acre.  The  history  of 
sugar  beet  culture  in  Nebraska  during  the  past  three  years  shows 
that  the  average  yield  per  acre  for  the  entire  state  is  about  15  tons; 
the  average  sugar  content  13.5  per  cent.,  and  the  cost  of  production 
varying  from  $14.75  to  $22.85  per  acre.  The  Standard  Cattle  Com- 
pany, of  Schuyler,  Nebraska,  furnished  the  Norfolk  factory  last  year 
with  the  beets  from  500  acres,  the  average  yield  being  17  tons  per 
acre.  This  crop  is  said  to  have  netted  the  growers  $60  per  acre. 

These  statistics  speak  for  themselves.  It  is  well  known  that 
under  the  most  favorable  conditions,  none  of  the  crops  ordinarily 
raised  on  the  farm  can  be  made  to  yield  as  much  net  profit  per  acre 
as  does  the  sugar  beet  when  properly  treated.  It  has  also  been  a 
noticeable  fact  that  in  seasons  of  drouth,  when  wheat,  corn  and  oats 
were  failures,  the  beet  crop  was  a great  success. 

WHAT  CAN  BE  DONE  IN  WASHINGTON. 

Before  a sugar  factory  will  ever  be  located  on  Washington  soil 
two  important  points  must  be  determined:  First,  if  our  soil  and 
climate  are  well  adapted  to  the  growth  of  sugar  beets,  can  the 


14 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


farmer  raise  them  in  such  quantities  that  they  can  sell  them  (with 
a fair  profit  to  themselves)  to  the  manufacturers  at  a price  they 
can  afford  to  pay  and  still  make  a reasonable  profit  in  manufactur- 
ing sugar?  If  the  farmers  lose  money  in  raising  beets  for  supply- 
ing the  factory,  the  enterprise  will  necessarily  fail.  This  question 
must  be  settled  by  the  farmers  themselves.  Experience  in  other 
states  shows  that  it  can  be  done  in  some  places.  Can  it  be  done  in 
Washington? 

The  second  point  is,  will  the  beets  raised  in  Washington  be  suf- 
ficiently rich  in  sugar  to  be  used  in  its  manufacture? 

These  points  must  not  be  settled  by  guess  work.  In  view  of  the 
repeated  failures  of  the  past,  capital  is  very  cautious  about  taking- 
hold  of  beet  sugar  enterprises.  Capital  can  never  be  induced  to 
establish  a plant  in  Washington  until  there  has  been  a more  com- 
plete demonstration  of  the  adaptability  of  soil  and  climate  to  sugar 
beet  culture.  It  is  very  true  that  many  beets  have  been  raised  in 
the  state  containing  a large  percentage  of  sugar,  and  having  a high 
degree  of  purity;  but  other  points  must  be  considered  and  much 
more  experimentation  in  the  same  line  be  carried  on  before  a fac- 
tory will  be  among  the  possible  things. 

It  is  of  great  importance  to  all  engaged  in  agriculture  in  Wash- 
ington to  have  the  above  mentioned  points  settled  with  reference 
to  each  locality  in  the  state. 

The  agricultural  experiment  stations  exist  for  the  purpose  of 
giving  aid  and  cooperating  with  the  farmers  in  matters  of  this 
kind.  The  laboratory  of  the  Washington  station  is  well  equipped 
for  doing  any  work  connected  with  the  analysis  of  sugar  beets  or 
their  products,  and  the  chemical  department  is  ready  to  give  any 
aid  possible.  In  a word,  it  is  our  earnest  desire  to  form  a partner- 
ship with  all  the  farmers  in  the  state  who  are  interested  in  this 
matter,  the  basis  of  partnership  to  be  as  follows:  We  agree  to  fur- 
nish seed  and  printed  directions  for  the  culture  of  the  beet;  we 
further  agree  to  pay  transportation  charges  on  all  beets  sent  to  the 
department  for  analysis,  and  to  make  the  analyses  free  of  cost;  to 
preserve  and  correllate  the  data  thus  obtained;  to  print  the  same 
in  a bulletin,  a copy  of  which  will  be  sent  free  to  all  farmers. 

We  ask  the  farmers  on  their  part,  to  measure  off  a definite  por- 
tion of  land,  about  10  to  20  feet  square,  in  which  the  seed  will  be 
planted  at  such  time  and  in  such  manner  as  we  shall  indicate,  as 
nearly  as  possible;  to  properly  cultivate  and  otherwise  care  for  the 


Bulletin  9. — 1893. 


15 


beets  during  their  period  of  growth,  according  to  directions  fur- 
nished, as  nearly  as  possible y when  the  beets  have  reached  ma- 
turity to  select  samples  for  analysis  at  such  time  and  in  such 
manner  as  we  may  prescribe,  as  yiearly  as  possible y to  send  said 
samples  to  us;  to  keep  an  accurate  record  of  the  kind  of  seed,  time 
of  planting,  size  of  plat,  quality  of  soil,  kind  and  amount  of  culti- 
vation, etc. ; also,  to  carefully  estimate  the  yield  and  cost  of  pro- 
duction per  acre;  and  lastly,  to  furnish  us  with  these  and  all  other 
data  bearing  on  the  subject,  for  publication. 

Now,  is  not  this  a fair  proposition?  It  will  cost  the  farmer 
nothing  but  a little  time  and  labor.  We  would  be  glad  to  have 
500  men  cooperate  with  us  in  this  matter. 

Farmers  of  Washington,  the  question  is  before  you;  what  will 
you  do  with  it f If  you  are  willing  to  take  hold  with  us  in  this 
work  for  the  advancement  of  agriculture  in  Washington,  please 
send  us  your  name  and  address  not  later  than  March  10,  1894. 
Seed  will  be  distributed  about  March  20th. 

In  the  meantime  we  shall  be  glad  to  answer  any  questions  con- 
cerning this  or  any  other  subject  pertaining  to  the  agricultural 
interests  of  the  state.  Write  us  fully  and  freely.  We  will  take 
great  pleasure  in  replying. 

To  all  interested  in  agriculture,  let  me  say:  Let  us  heartily  co- 

operate in  this  matter.  Let  us  make  this  sugar  beet  campaign  so 
successful  that  the  results  obtained  may  be  more  reliable  and 
conclusive  because  they  are  based  on  the  experiences  of  a large 
number  of  workers.  Address,  Elton  Fulmer, 

Chemist , Experiment  Station , 

Pidlman , Washington. 

There  is  an  additional  inducement  for  the  farmers  of  Washing- 
ton to  raise  beets,  because  of  the  provisions  of  section  2,  chapter 
68  of  the  state  session  laws  for  1893.  Section  2 reads  as  follows: 

“Any  persons,  lirm  or  corporation  shall  receive  from  the  state  treasury 
the  sum  of  one-half  (i)  cent  for  each  and  every  pound  of  sugar  manufac- 
tured within  the  State  of  Washington  from  sugar  yielding  plants  grown 
within  said  state  by  such  persons,  firm  or  corporation.” 

The  manufacturer  is  provided  for  in  section  1,  which  reads  as 
follows: 

“Any  persons,  firm  or  corporation  shall  receive  from  the  state  treasury 
the  sum  of  one-half  (£)  cent  for  each  and  every  pound  of  sugar  manufac- 


16 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


tured  within  the  State  of  Washington,  by  such  persons,  firm  or  corpora- 
tion, from  sugar  producing  plants  grown  within  the  state.” 

Section  7 reads: 

“The  benefits  of  this  act  shall  accrue  to  any  persons,  firm  or  corpora- 
tion, and  to  all  persons  furnishing  them  sugar  producing  plants,  that 
shall  commence  the  erection  of  a sugar  manufactory  within  two  years 
from  the  passage  of  this  act,  and  shall  have  completed  the  same  ready  for 
operation  by  the  first  day  of  July,  1896;  and  the  bounty  herein  provided 
for  shall  be  paid  to  said  persons,  firms  or  corporations  for  the  period  of 
five  (5)  years  from  the  completion  of  the  said  manufactory.  This  act 
shall  be  taken  and  considered  to  be  a contract  and  irrevocable  with  all 
such  persons,  firms  or  corporations  as  shall  commence  and  complete  the 
erection  of  such  manufactory  within  the  time  hereinbefore  specified,  and 
with  all  persons,  firms  or  corporations  furnishing  them  sugar  growing 
plants  as  herein  provided.” 

The  above  act  was  approved  March  9,  1893. 

By  the  provisions  of  this  act  the  beet  grower  and  the  sugar  man- 
ufacturer share  alike  in  the  bounty  offered  by  the  state  to  encourage 
this  industry. 


//,  / P 9 C/ 


STATE  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE  AND 
SCHOOL  OF  SCIENCE. 


Experiment  Station, 

PULLMAN,  WASHINGTON.  . 


Bulletin  io. 


AGRICULTURAL  NOTES. 

WHEATS,  BARLEYS,  OATS,  PEAS  AND  FORAGE  CROPS. 


Review  of  Weather  and  Crops  in  Washington  for  1898. 


DECEMBER,  1893. 


OLYMPIA,  WASH.: 

O.  C.  WHITE,  . . . STATE  PRINTER. 

1894. 


STATE  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE  AND 
SCHOOL  OF  SCIENCE. 


Experiment  Station, 

PULLMAN,  WASHINGTON. 


Bulletin  lO. 


AGRICULTURAL  NOTES. 


WHEATS,  BARLEYS,  OATS,  PEAS  AND  FORAGE  CROPS. 


Review  of  Weather  and  Crops  in  Washington  for  1893. 


DECEMBER,  1893. 


OLYMPIA,  WASH.: 

O.  C.  WHITE,  . . . STATE  PRINTER. 

1894. 


AGRICULTURAL  NOTES. 


WHEATS,  BARLEYS,  OATS,  PEAS  AND  FORAGE  CROPS. 


E.  R.  LAKE. 

The  plats  of  small  grains,  with  one  exception,  were  grown  on 
the  ridge  to  the  north  of  the  college  barn,  the  object  being  to  give 
to  each  plat  proportionate  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  north 
and  south  slope  and  ridge-top.  In  round  numbers  the  plats  were 
from  two  to  six  rods  wide  and  ten  to  thirty  rods  long,  and  varying 
in  area  from  thirty-six  to  two  hundred  and  twenty  square  rods,  the 
average  area  being  one  hundred  and  nine  square  rods. 

Plat  1 did  not  embrace  the  north  slope,  which  is  a favorable 
slope  for  grain  crops  in  this  section,  while  plats  seven  to  sixteen 
were  favored  with  a longer  and  gentler  south  slope  of  more  fertile 
soil  than  the  south  slopes  of  other  plats.  Plat  1 V was  located  just 
west  of  the  farm  house  in  a slight  depression  and  on  both  sides  of 
the  drive.  In  general,  the  soil  of  the  south  half  of  plats  one  to 
ten  is  below  the  average  of  the  farm  in  fertility.  The  whole  ridge 
has  been  cultivated  for  years,  and  each  time  in  plowing  the  soil 
has  been  turned  down  hill  on  either  slope  until  the  top  of  the  ridge 
is  scarcely  more  than  raw  clay. 

Owing  to  the  incomplete  organization  of  this  department  during 
the  first  six  months  of  this  year  only  the  crudest  of  notes  have 
been  taken  on  all  plat  work  on  the  farm.  The  relative  yields, 
which  have  been  computed  with  as  much  care  and  accuracy  as  the 
circumstances  would  permit,  are  perhaps  the  only  points  of  interest 
or  value  to  the  farmer.  Plats  one  to  ten,  inclusive,  were  sown 
April  29th,  others  May  1st. 

WHEATS. 

Plat  4 — Saslcachawan  Fife. — One  hundred  and  twenty  pounds  of 
seed  sown,  three  inches  deep,  on  two  hundred  and  twenty  square  rods. 
Yield,  two  thousand  pounds;  practically,  twenty-five  bushels  per  acre. 

Plat  5 — Blue  Stem. — One  hundred  and  four  pounds  of  seed  sown, 
three  inches  deep,  on  one  hundred  and  ninety-eight  square  rods.  Yield, 


20 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


one  thousand  five  hundred  and  fifty  pounds;  practically,  twenty-one 
bushels  per  acre. 

Plat  6 — Wellman  Fife. — Forty-five  pounds  of  seed  sown,  two  inches 
deep,  on  eighty-one  square  rods.  Yield,  five  hundred  andr  eighty-two 
and  one-half  pounds;  practically,  nineteen  and  one-fifth  bushels  per  acre. 

Plat  7 — White  Russian. — Fifty-two  pounds  of  seed  sown,  one  and 
one-half  inches  deep,  on  eighty-seven  square  rods.  Yield,  eight  hundred 
and  seventy  pounds;  practically,  twenty-six  and  two-thirds  bushels  per 
acre. 

Plat  8 — Velvet -Chaff  Blue  Stem. — Forty-five  pounds  of  seed  sown, 
three  inches  deep,  on  eighty-six  square  rods.  Yield,  eight  hundred  and 
seventeen  and  one-half  pounds;  practically,  twenty-five  and  one-third 
bushels  per  acre. 

Plat  9 — Velvet-Chaff. — Forty-six  pounds  of  seed  sown,  two  inches 
deep,  on  seventy-eight  and  one-half  square  rods.  Yield,  eight  hundred 
pounds;  practically,  twenty-seven  and  one-sixth  bushels  per  acre. 

BARLEY. 

Plat  1 — Manshury. — Forty-two  pounds  of  seed  sown,  four  inches 
deep,  on  sixty  square  rods.  Yield,  four  hundred  and  fifty-two  and  one- 
half  pounds;  practically,  twenty-six  and  three-eighths  bushels  per  acre. 

Plat  2 — Highland  Chief.— -Twenty-three  pounds  of  seed  sown,  two 
inches  deep,  on  thirty-six  square  rods.  Yield,  three  hundred  and  twenty- 
seven  and  one-half  pounds;  practically,  thirty  and  one-third  bushels  per 
acre. 

Plat  8 — Nepaul  ( Hultess ). — Fifty-seven  pounds  of  seed  sown,  three 
inches  deep,  on  sixty-six  square  rods.  Yield,  six  hundred  and  sixty 
pounds;  practically,  thirty-three  and  one-third  bushels  per  acre. 

Plat  10 — Highland  Chief. — One  hundred  and  eight  pounds  seed  sown, 
one  and  one-half  inches  deep,  on  seventy-eight  and  one-half  square  rods. 
Yield,  one  thousand  seven  hundred  and  sixty  pounds;  practically,  seventy- 
four  and  seven-tenths  bushels  per  acre. 

Plat  11 — Black. — Eighty-five  pounds  of  seed  sown,  two  inches  deep, 
on  seventy-one  and  two-thirds  rods.  Yield,  six  hundred  and  forty 
pounds;  practically,  twenty-nine  and  three-fourths  bushels  per  acre. 

OATS. 

Plat  12 — American  Banner. — Eighty-three  pounds  of  seed  sown,  two 
inches  deep,  on  one  hundred  and  five  square  rods.  Yield,  eight  hundred 
and  forty-five  pounds;  practically,  forty-four  bushels  per  acre. 

Plat  13  — White  Russian. — Ninety-six  pounds  of  seed  sown,  four  inches 
deep,  on  one  hundred  and  five  square  rods.  Yield,  seven  hundred  and 
thirty-seven  and  one-half  poupds;  practically,  thirty-five  bushels  per  acre. 

Plat  14 — Golden  Giant. — Ninety-six  pounds  of  seed  sown,  three  inches 
deep,  on  one  hundred  and  sixty-five  square  rods.  Yield,  one  thousand 
seven  hundred  and  fifty  pounds;  practically,  fifty-three  bushels  per  acre 


Bulletin  10.  A— December,  1893. 


21 


Plat  15 — Race  Horse. — Ninety-four  pounds  of  seed  sown,  two  inches 
deep,  on  one  hundred  and  five  square  rods.  Yield,  one  thousand  nine 
hundred  and  thirty-two  and  one-half  pounds;  practically,  ninety-two 
bushels  per  acre. 

Plat  16  — White  Bonanza. — One  hundred  pounds  of  seed  sown,  three 
inches  deep,  on  one  hundred  and  fifty  square  rods.  Yield,  one  thousand 
one  hundred  and  forty  pounds;  practically,  thirty-eight  bushels  per  acre. 

Plat  17  — White  Bonanza. — Sixty-four  pounds  seed  sown,  one  inch 
deep,  on  one  hundred  and  sixty  square  rods.  Yield,  nine  hundred  pounds; 
practically,  twenty-eight  bushels  per  acre. 

FORAGE  CROPS. 

Plat  19* — Alsike  Glover.—  Sown  in  spring  of  1892.  Yielded,  of  thor- 
oughly dried  hay,  one  hundred  pounds.  Cut  June  29th.  Area,  thirty- 
nine  and  one-third  square  rods;  practically,  four  hundred  pounds  per 
acre. 

Plat  20  — Orchard  Grass. — Sown  in  spring  of  1892.  Yielded,  of  thor- 
oughly dried  hay,  three  hundred  pounds.  Cut  June  29th.  Area,  twenty- 
six  and  one-fourth  square  rods;  practically,  one  thousand  eight  hundred 
and  thirty  pounds  per  acre. 

Plat  21  — Oat  Grass. — Sown  in  spring  of  1892.  Yielded,  of  thoroughly 
dried  hay,  eight  hundred  pounds.  Cut  June  30th.  Area,  forty-six  and  one- 
half  square  rods;  practically,  two  thousand  seven  hundred  and  fifty  pounds 
per  acre. 

PEAS.f 

This  crop  was  sown  in  single  drills  seventy-five  feet  long.  The 
merits  of  home  grown  and  seed  kept  two  years  as  compared  with 
foreign  grown  and  one-year-old  seed  as  to  per  cent,  of  weeviled 
fruit,  are  not  such  as  to  be  readily  formulated  into  a general  state- 
ment, though  on  the  whole  there  seems  to  be  a less  percentage  of 
weevil  in  the  crop  from  home  grown  seed.  Data  as  to  earliness 
and  productiveness  must. necessarily  cover  several  years. 

All  that  it  is  expected  to  answer  in  this  varietal  test  at  present  is 
the  relative  productiveness  and  quality  of  the  leading  commercial 
varieties  as  offered  by  the  seedsmen. 

Plat  1 — Alaska. — A dwarf-growing  early  pea,  having  a small  pod. 
Peas,  small,  round,  smooth,  and  of  pale  green  color.  Yield,  twelve 
pounds.  Ripens  about  July  15th.  Weeviled,  23  per  cent.  Henderson,  1892. 

Plat  2 — Alaska. — Same  as  the  above  in  all  material  resjiects  except 

* Plat  19  produced  considerable  wheat  together  with  the  Alsike,  the  result  of  volun- 
teer seeding. 

fData  for  these  notes  on  peas  M ere  gathered  and  compiled  by  L.  C.  Eead,  assistant  to 
the  Horticulturist. 


22 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


yield  was  much  less,  owing  to  the  greater  effect  of  drouth,  and  weeviled 
only  9 per  cent.  Home  grown,  1892. 

Plat  3 — American  Wonder. — A dwarf-growing,  very  early  pea  having 
a small  pod.  Peas,  medium,  Hat,  wrinkled.  Yield,  eight  and  one-quarter 
pounds.  Ripens  about  July  1st.  Weeviled  about  13  per  cent.  Excellent 
flavor.  Henderson,  1892. 

Plat  4 — American  Wonder. — Same  as  above  except  affected  by 
drought.  Yield,  five  and  one-quarter  pounds.  Weeviled,  5 per  cent. 
Home  grown,  1892. 

Plat  5 — Bliss  Everbearing. — Medium  growth  of  vine,  small  pod,  al- 
though the  pea  is  very  large,  flat  and  wrinkled,  of  pale  green  color. 
Yield,  six  pounds.  Ripens  about  August  1st,  and  is  of  excellent  flavor, 
and  a fine  pea  generally.  Weeviled,  5 per  cent.  Home  grown,  1892. 

Plat  6 — Blue  Imperial. — Medium  growth  of  vine,  with  small  pods. 
The  pea  is  flat,  smooth,  average,  and  of  a bluish  tinge,  hence  its  name. 
Yield,  nine  pounds,  ripened  fruit  about  July  15th.  Weeviled,  19  percent. 
Henderson,  1892. 

Plat  7 — Blue  Beauty. — This  is  a fairly  early  pea,  but  of  quite  poor 
flavor.  The  pod  small,  pea  medium  size,  round,  smooth,  and  of  pale 
green  or  bluish  color,  ripens  about  July  1st.  Yield,  five  pounds.  Weev- 
iled, 19  per  cent.  Henderson,  1892. 

Ptat  8 — Blackeyed  Marrowfat. — This  variety  made  large  growth  of 
vine,  large  pods,  with  rather  large,  smooth  cream  colored  pea.  Ripens 
August  1st.  Yield,  ten  pounds.  Weeviled,  5 per  cent.  Henderson,  1892. 

Plat  9 — Chelsea. — A dwarf-growing  early  variety.  Ripens  early  in 
July.  The  pea  is  medium  sized,  wrinkled,  and  of  pale  green  and  cream 
color.  Yield,  nine  and  three-quarter  pounds.  Weeviled,  20  per  cent. 
Henderson,  1892. 

Plat  10 — Dwarf  Sugar. — An  early  dwarf  variety,  with  edible  pods. 
Ripens  in  July.  Has  small  pods,  with  small,  round,  smooth  pea,  of  cream 
color  when  ripe.  Yield,  ten  pounds.  Weeviled,  10  per  cent.  Home 
grown,  1892. 

Plat  11  — The  Don. — This  variety  made  a heavy  growth  of  vine,  with 
large  pods,  but  not  very  well  filled.  The  pea  is  large,  flat  and  wrinkled- 
of  a pale  green  and  cream  color.  Ripens  August  1st.  Yield,  five  pounds. 
Weeviled,  16  per  cent.  Henderson,  1892. 

Plat  12  — Evolution. — This  variety  is  one  of  large  growth;  large  pod, 
well  filled.  Pea  large  and  even  in  size,  smooth  and  flat  in  shape,  of  deep 
green  color.  Ripens  August  1st.  Yield,  eleven  pounds.  Weeviled,  20 
per  cent.  Henderson,  1892. 

Plat  13 — Gladiator. — This  variety  made  a heavy  growth  of  vine,  with 
large,  well-filled  pods.  It  is  a medium,  smooth,  rather  angular  pod  of 
pale  green  color.  Ripens  July  15th.  Yield,  nine  pounds.  Weeviled,  12 
per  cent.  Henderson,  1892. 

Plat  14  — Heroine. — This  variety  was  quite  prolific.  Large  growth  of 


Bulletin  10. — December , 1893. 


23 


vine  and  well  filled,  large  pods.  Ripens  August  1st.  Pea  large,  flat  and 
wrinkled,  of  pale  green  color.  An  excellent  variety..  Yield,  eleven  and 
three-quarter  pounds.  Weeviled,  19  per  cent.  Henderson,  1892. 

Plat  15  — Henderson’s  First  of  All. — A very  good  early  variety.  Made 
a large  growth  with  small,  well-filled  pods.  The  pea  is  of  fair  size,  some 
round  and  smooth,  others  flat  and  wrinkled,  pale  green  and  cream  color. 
Ripens  early  in  July.  Yield,  eight  pounds.  Weeviled,  8 percent.  Home 
grown,  1892. 

Plat  16  — Henderson's  Midsummer. — A very  prolific  variety.  Made  a 
large  growth  of  vine  wdth  large,  well-filled  pods.  The  pea  is  of  very  fine 
flavor;  is  large,  flat  and  wrinkled,  of  pale  green  and  cream  color.  Ripens 
August  1st.  Yield,  fifteen  pounds.  Weeviled,  22  per  cent.  Henderson, 
1892. 

Plat  17  — Laxton's  Fillbasket. — This  variety  has  small,  fairly  well  filled 
pods.  Peas  round,  smooth,  medium  and  green  in  color.  Ripens  August 
1st.  Yield,  eight  and  one-fourth  pounds.  Weeviled,  17  per  cent.  Home 
grown,  1892. 

Plat  18  — Laxton's  Alpha. — This  variety  made  much  the  same  growth 
as  the  Alaska.  Very  dwarf.  Pea  is  of  medium  size,  wrinkled  and  green 
in  color.  Ripens  about  July  15th.  Yield,  six  pounds.  Weeviled,  20  per 
cent.  Home  grown,  1892. 

Plat  19  — McLean's  Little  Gem. — Dwarf  variety,  small  pods  well  filled. 
Ripens  July  15th.  Pea  medium,  fiat,  wrinkled,  and  green  and  cream  in 
color.  Yield,  nine  and  one-half  pounds.  Weeviled,  19  per  cent.  Hen- 
derson, 1892. 

Plat  20 — Shropshire  Hero. — This  variety  gave  a large  growth  of  vine, 
with  large  pod.  Pea  large,  flat  and  wrinkled,  pale  green  color.  Ripens 
August  1st.  Yield,  seven  and  one-half  pounds.  Weeviled,  5 per  cent. 
Home  grown,  1892. 

Plat  21  — Stratagem. — Large  pod,  not  very  well  filled.  Pea  large,  Hat 
and  wrinkled,  green  in  color.  Ripens  August  1st.  Yield,  six  and  one-half 
pounds.  Weeviled,  26  per  cent.  Henderson,  1892. 

Plat  22 — Tom  Thumb. — This  variety  made  a vigorous  growth,  but 
produced  little  fruit  of  only  ordinary  quality.  Pods  small;  pea  small, 
round  and  smooth,  pink  color.  Ripens  August  1st.  Yield,  seven  pounds. 
Weeviled,  15  per  cent.  Home  grown,  1892. 

Plat  23 — Telephone. — This  variety  made  a large  growth  of  vine,  with 
large,  well  filled  pods.  In  fact,  it  is  a very  profitable  variety;  bears  a 
fine,  large  pea,  wrinkled,  and  pale  green  and  cream  in  color.  Ripens  in 
July.  Yield,  twelve  pounds.  Weeviled,  17  per  cent.  Home  grown,  1892. 

Plat  24 — Telegraph. — This  variety  made  quite  a large  growth  of  vine, 
with  large,  well  filled  pods.  Pea  large,  round  and  smooth;  pale  green 
color.  Ripens  July  15th.  Yield,  nine  pounds.  Weeviled,  18  per  cent. 
Henderson,  1892. 

Plat  25  — Tom  Thumb. — This  is  the  same  variety  as  plat  22.  This 


24 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


plat,  however,  seemed  to  ripen  earlier  and  yielded  better  than  plat  22. 
Yield,  ten  pounds.  Weeviled,  13  per  cent.  Home  grown,  1892. 

Plat  26  — Telegraph. — Same  variety  as  plat  24.  This  one,  however, 
was  from  home  grown  seed.  Yield,  eight  and  one-half  pounds.  Ripens 
July  15th.  Weeviled,  11  per  cent.  Home  grown,  1892. 

Plat  27  — White  Marrowfat. — This  very  prolific  variety  made  heavy 
growth  of  vine,  with  large,  well  filled  pods.  Pea  large,  smooth  and 
round;  of  cream  color.  Ripens  August  1st.  Yield,  nineteen  and  one- 
fourth  pounds.  Weeviled,  9 per  cent.  Henderson,  1892. 

Plat  28  — White  Marrowfat. — Same  variety  as  plat  27,  and  the  yield 
was  about  the  same.  Weeviled,  6 per  cent.  Home  grown,  1892. 

Plat  29  — Yorkshire  Hero. — A very  prolific  variety.  The  pea  is  large, 
flat  and  wrinkled,  with  light  green  and  white  color.  Ripens  August  1st. 
Yield,  fifteen  pounds.  Weeviled,  23  per  cent.  Henderson,  1892. 


Bulletin  10. — December , 1893. 


25 


STATE  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE  AND  SCHOOL  OF  SCIENCE 

IN  COOPERATION  WITH  THE 

Washington  State  Weather  Service,  Department  of  Agriculture. 


REVIEW  OF  THE  WEATHER  AND  CROPS  IN  WASHINGTON 
FOR  SEASON  OF  1893. 


In  many  respects  the  crop  season  of  1893  in  the  State  of  Wash- 
ington has  been  a remarkable  one.  Owing  to  the  continued  rainy 
weather  during  the  first  three  months  of  1893,  general  farming 
operations  which  in  this  state  usually  begin  in  March  were  delayed 
from  two  to  five  weeks  in  all  counties  west  of  the  Cascades  and  in 
the  northeastern  part  of  the  state.  At  the  time  plowing  and  seed- 
ing were  begun  the  soil  was  very  wet,  soggy  and  cold  in  all  coun- 
ties in  the  state,  except  in  portions  of  the  southeastern  counties, 
where  it  was  comparatively  dry.  The  season  opened  with  a March 
temperature  of  3.4  degrees  colder  than  average,  and  a rainfall 
which,  though  .08  inches  less  than  the  normal,  gave  a much  larger 
number  of  rainy  days  than  is  usual  at  this  time  of  year.  This  ex- 
cess of  moisture  was  more  noticeable  in  the  eastern  portion  of  the 
state.  April  was  an  unfavorable  month  to  agriculturists.  Its 
mean  temperature  was  no  less  than  4.7  degrees  colder  than  the  av- 
erage; its  rainfall  was  remarkably  heavy,  being  3.04  inches  above 
the  normal  April  values.  Plowing  and  seeding  were  consequently 
delayed  and  the  growth  and  development  of  the  crops  already  in 
the  ground  greatly  retarded.  May  was  another  cold,  rainy  month, 
with  a mean  temperature  of  2.8  degrees  colder  than  usual,  and  a 
rainfall  1.19  inches  heavier  than  the  average.  The  sunshine  dur- 
ing this  and  the  preceding  months  was  wofully  deficient.  Cold 
rains  injured  orchards  to  some  extent.  June  brought  very  little 
change  in  the  weather  conditions  that  prevailed  during  the  preced- 
ing five  months.  The  deficiency  in  the  temperature  was  5 degrees 


26 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


greater  than  that  of  any  other  month  of  the  season.  The  rainfall 
was  only  a little  less  than  the  average.  On  the  whole,  the  season 
was  not  favorable  to  crops,  and  the  injury  to  fruit  from  cold  show- 
ers was  increased.  July,  with  a mean  temperature  of  1.8  degrees 
colder  than  the  average  and  a rainfall  of  .16  of  an  inch  less  than 
usual,  but  with  plenty  of  sunshine,  brought  relief  to  suffering  veg- 
etation, especially  to  fruits  and  vegetables,  and  was  generally  bene- 
ficial to  all  crops.  August  was  in  every  respect  the  ideal  month 
for  the  farmers.  Its  temperature  and  its  rainfall  were  only  slightly 
below  the  average.  There  was  a goodly  amount  of  sunshine, 
which  proved  of  immense  benefit  to  all  crops.  September  was  a 
tolerably  favorable  month  for  the  farmers.  Its  temperature  was  a 
little  below  the  average  and  its  rainfall  a trifle  above  the  usual 
September  rainfall.  October  was  a red  letter  month.  Its  phe- 
nomenal rainfall,  especially  in  Eastern  Washington,  and  its  low 
temperature  were  exceedingly  injurious  to  all  crops. 

Summarizing  the  above  it  will  be  seen  that  the  rainfall  has  been 
excessive  in  all  sections  during  March,  April,  May,  June  and  Oc- 
tober, and  the  temperature  for  each  month  colder  than  usual  over 
the  entire  state.  The  season  has  been  almost  entirely  free  from 
hot  burning  winds,  that  occasionally  prevail  in  the  eastern  portion 
of  the  state  during  August,  the  only  very  warm  spell  being  that 
from  July  28  to  August  5,  during  which  the  thermometer  in  some 
of  the  eastern  counties  rose  to  102  degrees  on  several  days.  The 
injury  resulting  to  crops  from  this  warm  weather  was  insignificant 
and  altogether  restricted  to  only  a small  area. 

EFFECT  OF  WEATHER  CONDITIONS. 

Now,  as  to  the  effect  of  these  conditions  on  the  crops  of  1893, 
owing  to  the  lateness  of  spring  the  wheat  crop,  which  is  by  far  the 
most  important  grown  in  this  state,  was  not  planted  in  Eastern 
Washington  north  of  the  Snake  river  much  before  the  latter  part 
of  May,  while  in  Western  and  Southeastern  Washington  it  was 
all  sown  by  the  middle  of  April.  From  this  time  on  the  history  of 
this  year’s  wheat  is  a truly  extraordinary  one.  The  heavy  rain  and 
snowfall  of  the  winter  and  spring  thoroughly  saturated  the  soil  with 
moisture,  which,  having  been  retained  throughout  the  summer,  as- 
sured a good  yield  despite  the  comparatively  dry  summer  weather. 

The  weather  during  July  and  August  and  greater  part  of  Septem- 
ber was  such  that  the  grain  sprouted,  grew  and  flourished  in  a manner 


Bulletin  10. — December , 1893. 


27 


that  gladdened  the  heart  of  the  Eastern  Washington  farmers  and 
brought  a smile  of  great  satisfaction  to  the  face  of  the  merchants 
of  this  state,  whose  prosperity,  after  all,  depends  so  much  on  the 
results  of  the  labors  of  their  agricultural  fellow  workers.  As  early 
as  June  predictions  were  freely  made  by  old  settlers,  that  this  sea- 
son’s wheat  crop  would  even  exceed  that  of  the  famous  blockade 
year  of  1890,  the  acreage  this  season  having  been  largely  increased. 

By  the  middle  of  September,  all  of  this  had  been  realized  and 
the  crop  was  pronounced  the  largest  grown  in  this  state  for  many 
years,  but  alas,  the  unfortunate  farmers  whose  hopes  hinged  on  the 
success  of  their  one  crop  alone  were  doomed  to  disappointment, 
for,  on  September  28,  a rainy  spell  the  like  of  which  had  never 
been  heard  of  within  the  memory  of  the  oldest  inhabitant  set  in 
and  lasted  without  interruption  till  October  12th.  The  season  be- 
ing very  late,  as  we  have  already  said,  thousands  of  acres  of  stand- 
ing wheat  in  Whitman,  Stevens,  Lincoln,  Spokane  and  Douglas 
counties  were  knocked  down  and  greatly  injured,  while  acres  upon 
acres  of  grain  in  stack  were  completely  ruined.  The  loss  in  these 
counties  from  this  unprecedented  and  unusual  downpour  of  rain 
has  been  variously  estimated  at  from  2, 000, 000  to  3, 000, 000  bushels. 

THE  BARLEY  CROP. 

Sowing  of  barley  was  begun  in  nearly  all  sections  by  the  middle 
of  April,  though  in  some  counties  as  late  as  June  1.  The  acreage 
of  this  crop  compared  with  that  of  last  year  shows  a decided  in- 
crease. This  has  been  a very  favorable  season  for  barley,  the  yield 
having  been  fully  up  to  the  average.  The  harvesting  of  barley 
was  well  in  hand  in  all  counties  by  the  end  of  August. 

THE  OAT  CROP. 

The  greater  portion  of  the  oat  crop  was  planted  in  Western 
Washington  before  May  15th  and  in  the  eastern  portion  of  the  state 
a little  later.  The  oat  crop  this  season  has  been  a tolerably  satis- 
factory one.  The  yield  in  most  cases  was  fully  up  to  the  average. 
The  acreage  of  this  crop  compared  with  the  preceding  year  shows 
an  increase.  Harvesting  was  begun  about  the  middle  of  August 
in  Eastern  Washington,  and  about  the  end  of  the  month  in  West- 
ern Washington,  the  season  being  about  two  to  four  weeks  late. 

THE  HAY  CROP. 

This  season’s  hay  crop  was  an  excellent  one  from  every  stand- 
point, the  quantity  as  well  as  the  quality  being  up  to  the  average 


28 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


in  all  sections  of  the  state  where  the  crop  is  grown.  The  crop  was 
housed  in  good  condition  by  the  end  of  August  in  Western  Wash- 
ington, and  about  fifteen  days  later  in  the,  eastern  portion  of  the 
state. 

THE  FRUIT  CROP. 

Fruit  growers  interested  in  small  berries  have  every  reason  to 
feel  satisfied  with  this  year’s  crop,  which  was  immense  in  almost 
every  county  in  the  state.  The  strawberry  crop  was  particularly 
abundant  in  Clarke  county.  Washington  bids  fair  to  rival  the 
Golden  State  in  the  matter  of  successful  fruit  raising.  Melons, 
prunes  and  plums  were  a fair  crop,  but  cherries  and  apples  were 
seriously  injured  by  the  cold  showers  of  early  spring  and  by  the 
lack  of  sunshine  following.  Insects  in  large  numbers  have  made 
their  appearance  in  the  orchards  of  this  state  this  year,  but  so  far 
have  been  kept  in  check  by  careful  spraying,  as  recommended  by 
the  state  fruit  inspector.  Clarke  county  prune  raisers  have  made 
a record  this  season.  Tons  of  the  Italian  variety  were  successfully 
dried  in  the  different  dryers  in  that  county  during  the  season. 

THE  HOP  CROP. 

This  year’s  hop  crop  has  been  up  to  the  average  both  in  quantity 
and  quality.  Owing  to  the  lateness  of  the  season,  picking  began 
from  one  to  three  weeks  later  than  last  year.  This  was  rather  an 
advantage  though,  because  when  they  were  picked  there  was  less 
mould  and  the  vines  better  matured.  In  some  yards  tributary  to 
the  Puyallup  hop  growing  country,  this  year’s  crops  yielded  almost 
twice  as  much  as  last  year.  This  is  attributed  to  the  fact  that  last 
year  the  vines  were  not  cut  as  had  been  the  custom  heretofore,  but 
the  poles  were  cut  down  to  within  seven  feet  of  the  ground  and  the 
vines  trained  on  twine.  This  year’s  experience  has  taught  our  hop 
growers  that  vines  trained  on  twine  mature  more  solidly  and  weigh 
more  than  those  trained  in  the  old  way.  Washington  hops  are  at- 
tracting considerable  attention  in  Europe,  and  are  pronounced  by 
connoisseurs  to  be  far  superior  to-  any  grown  in  England.  The 
average  yield  of  Washington  hops,  too,  is  generally  higher  by  100 
or  200  pounds  to  the  acre  than  those  raised  in  other  parts  of  the 
world.  H.  F.  Alciatore, 

Director. 


//y/8-9* 


WASHINGTON  STATE  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE  AND 
SCHOOL  OF  SCIENCE. 


Experiment  Station, 

PULLMAN,  WASHINGTON. 


Bulletin  11. 

(Bulletins  sent  free  to  all  farmers  and  others  upon  application  to  this 

Station.) 


Preliminary  Report  of  a Feeding  Test  with  Swine. 


FEBRUARY,  1894. 


OLYMPIA,  WASH.: 

O.  C.  WHITE,  . . . STATE  PRINTER. 

1894. 


WASHINGTON  STATE  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE  AND 
SCHOOL  OF  SCIENCE. 


Experiment  Station, 

PULLMAN,  WASHINGTON. 


Bulletin  11. 

(Bulletins  sent  free  to  all  farmers  and  others  upon  applieation  to  this 

Station.) 


Preliminary  Report  of  a Feeding  Test  with  Swine. 


FEBRUARY,  1894. 


OLYMPIA,  WASH.: 

O.  C.  WHITE,  . . . STATE  PRINTER. 

1894. 


A PRELIMINARY  REPORT  OF  A FEEDING  TEST 
WITH  SWINE. 


E.  R.  LAKE. 


The  past  year  has  been  one  of  great  trial  to  the  farmers  of  south- 
eastern Washington  — “The  Palouse  Country.”  The  chief  crop 
of  this  section  is  wheat,  and  anything  that  seriously  lessens  its 
market  value  works  a hardship  upon  the  people  of  this  section. 
The  territory  included  in  the  term  Palouse  country  has,  at  a con- 
servative estimate,  an  area  of  about  two  and  one-half  million  acres. 
Last  year  over  one-half  of  this  acreage  was  cropped  with  three 
grains  — wheat,  oats  and  barley.  Of  the  total  crop  it  is  safe  to 
say  that  nearly,  if  not  quite,  a million  acres  were  wheat.  In  an 
ordinary  year  this  acreage  would  yield,  at  a low  figure,  twenty 
million  bushels  of  marketable  grain. 

The  year  just  past,  however,  was  a most  exceptional  one  in  this 
section,  as  also  in  other  parts  of  the  state.  A cold,  backward 
spring  so  retarded  the  growth  of  the  grain  crop  as  to  make  a late 
harvest.  An  autumn  of  very  unusual  and  heavy  rainfall  ruined, 
for  ordinary  market  demands,  as  a consequence,  a vast  amount  of 
both  headed  and  threshed  grain;  while  hundreds  of  acres  remained 
uncut  and  totally  unfit  for  other  than  pasturage  purposes. 

With  less  than  one-half  the  year’s  crop  saved  as  first  grade  grain, 
and  the  larger  part  of  this  selling  for  thirty  cents  per  bushel,  and 
the  remainder  of  the  marketable  grain,  not  more  than  one-sixth  of 
the  total  crop,  selling  for  fifteen  to  twenty  cents  per  bushel,  it  is 
evident  that  great  losses  have  been  sustained  through  this  crop  the 
past  year.  Estimating  one-third  of  the  crop  as  wholly  lost  as 
marketable  grain,  and  one-third  as  selling  at  half  price,  we  have, 
as  a total  loss  to  the  farmers  of  this  section,  the  enormous  sum  of 
$2,500,000.  These  are  very  conservative  figures,  based  upon  re- 
ports obtained  from  our  leading  farmers  and  grain  brokers. 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


29 


With  large  quantities  of  wheat  too  wet  for  the  elevators,  much 
of  it  unthreshed  and  uncut,  on  their  hands,  the  problem  of  dispos- 
ing of  it  without  suffering  total  loss  has  been  one  of  considerable 
moment  to  the  farmers.  To  those  who  have  had  more  or  less  stock 
the  answer  has  been  comparatively  easy;  for  it  has  been  found  by 
many  practical  trials  that  wheat  fed  to  stock  has  given  fair  returns. 
However,  thousands  of  bushels  have  been  quite  wholly  lost  as  the 
amount  of  available  stock  for  feeding  purposes  was  greatly  below 
the  demand  for  the  consumption  of  so  large  a quantity  in  a single 
season.  And,  besides,  the  farmers  who  had  most  need  for  so  using 
their  crop  had  little  means  for  procuring  stock,  which  had  a high 
market  value  in  consequence  of  the  unusual  demand,  and  no  con- 
veniences for  feeding  it  profitably.  Without  barns,  sheds  or  ricks, 
feeding  must  be  done  in  the  open  corral,  a most  wasteful  method 
in  more  ways  than  one,  and  the  result  of  such  feeding  has  not  been 
entirely  satisfactory  in  the  several-  instances  reported  by  the  press 
of  the  state. 

The  outcome  of  all  this  has  been  to  cast  a cloud  over  our  agri- 
cultural interests  — to  bring  about  a great  temporary  depression. 
Yet,  at  the  same  time,  these  conditions  have  combined  to  direct  the 
attention  of  our  soil  tillers  into  other  lines  of  labor  than  wheat 
growing,  and  the  outlook  for  a better  system  of  farming  is  becom- 
ing brighter  and  brighter  day  by  day.  The  farmer  is  doing  more 
thinking  and  figuring.  He  is  putting  more  brain  work  into  his 
business.  He  is  considering  the  relative  merits  of  the  different 
crops  that  are  available  for  culture  in  this  section.  The  pig,  the 
cow,  the  hen,  and  their  various  products,  are  receiving  much  atten- 
tion at  the  hands  of  the  progressive  farmer,  and  the  final  issue  of 
this  unusual  interest  in  other  lines  of  agricultural  labor  must  be  a 
great  revolution  in  our  present  system,  or,  rather,  non-system  of 
agricultural  practices. 

To  the  end  that  some  close  figures  might  be  placed  in  the  hands 
of  interested  agriculturists,  the  Station  has  undertaken  a series  of 
feeding  tests  with  swine.  The  chief  object  in  view  at  the  begin- 
ning was  to  ascertain  the  relative  value  of  wheat  and  barley  as 
feeding  stuffs;  and  how  much  pork  a bushel  of  grain  would  pro- 
duce when  fed  to  the  ordinary  grade  hog  of  this  section,  and  to 
the  full  blood  swine  of  our  best  breeds  as  found  in  the  eastern 


states. 


Bulletin  11. — February,  189 1^. 


33 


Although  the  test  is  hardly  more  than  begun,  it  has  been  deemed 
better  to  give  the  partial  results  obtained  than  to  hold  them  till  the 
tests  are  completed,  which,  from  the  nature  of  the  case,  will  cover 
a considerable  period. 

On  December  2d  three  hogs  were  taken  from  a herd  of  eight 
which  had  been  fed  for  the  five  previous  months  on  table  waste, 
skim  milk  and  a small  amount  of  wheat  and  barley  ground,  or  as  it 
is  commonly  called  “chop.”  The  three  selected  for  test  were  as 
nearly  equal  in  size  and  appearance  of  vigor  as  it  was  possible  to 
get  from  the  herd,  considering  sex  — male.  On  removal  from  the 
open  corral  in  which  they  had  been  kept  they  were  carefully 
weighed,  and  then  placed  separately  in  small  pens  in  the  basement 
of  the  barn.  During  the  first  period,  of  thirty  days,  weighings 
were  taken  each  day  just  before  the  mid-day  meal;  during  the  sec- 
ond period,  of  twenty-five  days,  weighings  were  taken  every  fifth 
day  at  a corresponding  time. 

Cut  straw  was  used  for  bedding  and  the  quantity  allowed  each 
hog  weighed,  as  was  also  the  waste  as  it  was  taken  from  each  pen. 

No.  1 for  the  first  eleven  days  was  fed  ground  wheat  alone.  The 
remainder  of  period  one  and  during  period  twro  he  was  fed  whole 
wheat. 

All  foods  were  soaked  from  twelve  to  twenty-four  hours  in  an 
equal  amount,  or  even  a little  more,  of  water,  before  being  fed. 

No.  2 was  fed  wheat  and  barley  chop  in  equal  parts  during  all  of 
period  one,  and  for  four  days  of  period  two.  The  remainder  of 
the  time  wheat  chop. 

No.  3 was  fed  wheat  and  barley  chop  in  equal  parts  for  the  first 
ten  days  of  period  one;  then  barley  chop  alone  for  the  following 
thirty-five  days,  and  wheat  chop  for  the  last  ten  days  of  period  two. 

The  changes  in  feed  were  more  frequent  than  they  would  other- 
wise have  been  had  our  supplies  of  barley  feed  not  become  ex- 
hausted before  the  hogs  were  sold. 

The  accompanying  chart  will  afford  a means  of  following  with 
the  eye  the  increase  in  weight  of  each  hog  from  weighing  to  weigh- 
ing, and  at  the  same  time  enable  one  to  get,  at  a glance,  the  slight 
differences  due  to  changes  of  feed. 

Feed  was  given  three  times  a day,  and  on  the  average  about  two 
and  one-half  pounds  per  meal.  At  the  former  part  of  test  more 
was  given;  at  the  latter  part,  less. 


34 


Washmgton  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


From  the  record  of  weighings  taken  we  deduct  the  following  ac- 


counts: 

FIRST  PERIOD. 

Hog  No.  1:  Dr.  Cr. 

To  original  weight,  182  pounds  at  3|c $6  37 

To  wheat,  chop,  65  pounds  at  ^c.* 38 

To  wheat,  whole  grain,  196  pounds  at  |c 98 

To  salt 01 

To  straw,  cut,  100  pounds  at  4c 25 

By  weight  at  end  of  period,  255  pounds  at  34c $8  92 

By  manure,  mostly  solids,  315  pounds  at  124c. f per  cwt 40 

Balance,  gain  1 33 


$9  32  $9  32 

The  gain  of  $1.33  represents  what  is  made  in  feeding  261  pounds 
of  grain  over  and  above  what  it  would  bring  marketed  as  grain  at 
one-half  cent  per  pound;  or,  stated  another  way,  261  pounds  of 
wheat  produced  73  pounds  of  pork,  which,  at  three  and  one-half 
cents  live,  would  net  $2.55  total,  or  ninety-eight  cents  per  hundred 
weight,  which  equals  fifty-nine  cents  per  bushel. 

One  pound  of  pork  produced  at  a cost  of  3.58  pounds  of  wheat. 


Hog  No.  2:  Dr.  Cr. 

To  original  weight,  174  pounds  at  34c $6  09 

To  wheat  and  barley  chop,  equal  parts, 275  pounds  at  1 60 

To  straw,  cut,  112  pounds  at  4c 28 

To  salt 01 

By  weight  at  close  of  period,  245f  pounds  at  34c $8  60 

By  manure,  mostly  solids,  392  pounds  at  124c.  per  cwt 49 

To  balance,  gain  1 11 


$9  09  $9  09 


In  this  instance  the  feeding  of  275  pounds  grain,  half  barley, 
made  7 If  pounds  of  pork,  which,  at  three  and  one-half  cents  live, 
would  give  a return  of  $2.50,  or  ninety-one  cents  per  hundred 
weight,  which  equals  fifty-five  cents  per  bushel. 

One  pound  of  pork  produced  at  a cost  of  3.83  pounds  of  wTheat 
and  barley. 


* The  cost  of  chopping  with  our  own  machinery  has  been  about  Tx5c.  per  pound. 

fThe  value  of  manure  is  taken  from  average  estimates  made  by  the  chemists  of  sev- 
eral of  our  agricultural  colleges. 


Bulletin  11. — February , 189 1^.  35 


Bog  No.  3:  Dr.  Cr. 

To  original  weight,  175  pounds  at  3|c $6  12 

To  wheat  chop,  25  pounds  at  15 

To  barley  chop,  230  pounds  at  ^ c 1 34 

To  straw,  cut,  112  pounds  at  ic 28 

To  salt 01 

By  weight  at  end  of  period,  247  pounds  at  3£c $8  64 

By  manure,  mostly  solids,  416  pounds  at  12ic.  per  cwt 52 

To  balance,  gain 1 26 


$9  16  $9  16 

The  feeding  of  255  pounds  of  grain,  nearly  all  barley,  in  this 
case  gave  an  increase  of  72  pounds  of  pork,  which,  at  three  and 
one-half  cents,  would  bring  the  price  of  the  wheat  up  to  ninety-nine 
cents  per  hundred  weight,  or  fifty-nine  and  one-half  cents  per  bushel. 

One  pound  of  pork  produced  at  a cost  of  3.54  pounds  of  grain, 
chiefly  barley. 

SECOND  PERIOD. 

Bog  Bo.  1.  — Consumed  157  pounds  whole  wheat,  and  increased 
from  255  pounds  to  286^,  a gain  of  31^  pounds.  This  is  equal  to 
5 pounds  of  wheat  to  each  pound  of  pork,  an  increase  of  1.42 
pounds  of  wheat  over  the  amount  required  during  the  first  period 
to  produce  a pound  of  pork. 

Hog  Bo.  2. — Consumed  133^  pounds  wheat  chop  and  5 pounds 
barley  chop,  and  increased  from  245f  to  279^,  a gain  of  33^ 
pounds.  This  is  equal  to  4.13  pounds  of  wheat  to  each  pound  of 
pork,  an  increase  of  .3  pound  of  wheat  over  the  amount  required 
to  produce  a pound  of  pork  during  the  first  period. 

Hog  Bo.  3. — Consumed  during  the  second  period  177  pounds  of 
grain,  85  of  which  were  barley,  and  gained  38^  pounds  in  weight. 
This  is  equal  to  4.6  pounds  grain  for  each  pound  of  pork,  an  in- 
crease of  1.06  pounds  grain  over  what  was  required  to  produce  a 
pound  of  pork  during  first  period. 

The  average  number  of  pounds  of  grain  required  to  produce  a 
pound  of  pork  throughout  the  test  for  these  three  hogs  was:  4.29 
pounds  of  wheat  for  No.  1;  3.98  pounds  of  grain,  a little  over  one- 
third  barley,  for  No.  2;  4.07  pounds  of  grain,  a little  over  one-third 
wheat,  for  No.  3. 

Had  the  grain  been  evenly  mixed  throughout  the  test,  it  would 
seem  to  indicate  that  a proportion  of  two  parts  wheat  to  one  part 


36 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


barley  would  be  the  best  food,  but  when  it  is  remembered  that  the 
barley  was  fed  to  No.  2 at  the  first  part  of  the  test,  and  with  an 
equal  quantity  of  wheat,  it  is  readily  seen  .that  a conclusion  cannot 
be  safely  stated  in  this  respect. 

Summary  of  this  partial  test  would  seem  to  show : 

1.  With  our  common  grade  hog,  half  grown,  one  pound  of  pork  can  be 
produced  by  feeding  from  pounds  to  5 pounds  of  grain. 

2.  The  younger  the  hog  the  less  grain  required  to  produce  a pound  of 
meat. 

3.  That  barley  chop  alone  is  a more  profitable  feed  than  wheat  alone, 
pound  for  pound. 

4.  That  barley  and  wheat  mixed  in  the  proportions  of  one  to  two,  re- 
spectively, are  better  than  either  alone. 

At  3ic.  per  pound  for  live  hogs  it  is  profitable  to  feed  wheat  priced 
at  40c.  per  bushel  if  no  better  returns  than  five  pounds  of  grain  for  one 
pound  of  pork  are  made. 

No  account  has  been  taken  of  the  labor,  as  its  value  to  the  farmer 
and  his  sons  at  the  time  of  year  when  little  is  to  be  done  on  the 
farm  is  a questionable  one,  while  the  ease  of  marketing  a crop  of 
wheat  as  pork  is  an  item  of  much  weight  as  against  the  usual 
method  of  marketing  the  crop. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  allowance  is  to  be  made  for  the 
small  number  of  individuals  in  the  test.  Each  hog’s  “personal 
equation”  enters  into  the  conclusions  and  may  materially  affect 
the  finals.  Realizing  the  weight  of  this  condition  in  the  test,  we 
have  begun  a second  test  with  twenty  small  pigs,  which  are  being 
treated  alike  in  all  material  respects. 


Washington  State  Agricultural  College 
and  School  of  Science. 


-#Experirr]erit  Stalk]# 

Pullman,  Washington. 


Bulletin  12. 


DEPARTMENT  OF  HORTICULTURE. 

FOREST  TREE  PLANTATION. 

John  A.  Balmer. 


1894. 


All  Bulletins  of  this  Station  are  sent  free  to  residents  of  the  State.  Persons 
desiring  their  names  onjpur  mailing  list  should  address 

PRESIDENT  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE, 

Pullman,  Washington. 


PULLMAN  HERALD  PRINT. 


Board  of  Regents 


CHAS.  E.  CONNER,  President, 
T.  R.  TANNATT,  Vice  President, 
J.  W.  STEARNS,  Treasurer, 

E.  S.  INGRAHAM,  - 
H.  S.  BLANDFORD, 


Station  Staff. 


ENOCH  A.  BRYAN,  A.  M., 

CHAS.  V.  PIPER,  M.  S., 

ELTON  FULMER,  A.  M., 

JOHN  A.  BALMER,  - 
W.  J.  SPILLMAN,  M.  S., 
CLARENCE  C.  FLETCHER,  B.  Sc., 


Spokane. 

- Farmington. 
Tekoa. 
Seattle. 
Walla  Walla. 


Director. 
Entomologist. 
Chemist. 
Horticulturist. 
Agriculturist. 
Assistant  Chemist. 


Forest  Tree  Plantation 


JOHN  A.  BALMER. 


The  problem  presented  by  the  Eastern  and  Western  parts  of 
the  state,  so  far  as  they  relate  to  Forestry,  are  distinctly  different. 
There  are,  perhaps,  no  denser  forests  in  the  United  States  than 
those  in  this  state  West  of  the  summit  of  the  Cascades.  The 
Eastern,  and  particularly  the  South-eastern  parts  of  the  state,  on 
the  other  hand,  are  nearly  or  quite  treeless.  It  is  not  the  prov- 
ince of  this  bulletin  to  inquire  into  the  causes  of  this  condition, 
but  rather  to  offer  suggestions  that  may  be  valuable  to  the  tree- 
less portions  of  the  state.  With  a view  to  determining  the 
adaptability  of  trees  to  this  portion  of  the  state,  the  Experiment 
Station  in  the  spring  of  1892  made  large  plantings  of'decidious 
and  evergreen  trees  and  shrubs  as  detailed  in  Bulletin  No.  6 of 
this  station.  The  trees  planted  here  in  the  spring  of  1892  were 
mostly  small — very  small — and  a great  many  of  them  being 
damaged  in  transit  by  frost  did  not  start  into  leaf  at  all,  hence 
it  would  be  an  error  to  charge  the  entire  loss  in  any  variety  to 
lack  of  adaptability  to  soil  and  climate.  The  Northern  and 
North-western  portions  of  the  nursery  were  not  well  drained, 
which  had  an  unfavorable  effect  upon  all  the  plantations  there 
except  willows  and  poplars.  The  evergreens  suffered  particularly 
from  this  cause.  It  would  appear  also  that  the  evergreen  stock 
planted  was  not  in  good  condition,  since  very  little  of  it  survived 
the  transplanting  season.  Those  that  did  so  have  since  shown 
a good  growth.  Owing  to  the  uncultivated  and  unimproved 
condition  of  the  college  grounds  at  the  time  of  the  arrival  of  these 
trees  it  was  thought  advisable  to  plant  them  all  in  nursery  rows, 
where  they  could  have  proper  cultivation,  and  where  it  could  be 
determined  which  were  most  desirable  for  general  planting. 
In  the  spring  of  1895  several  thousand  of  these  will  be  planted 


6 


Agricultural  Experiment  Station, 


on  the  campus  and  in  the  arboretum.  About  five  acres  will  be 
devoted  to  the  arboretum,  in  which  as  large  a collection  as  pos- 
sible will  be  made.  After  seeing  the  growth  that  these  trees  have 
made,  we  can  form  a very  correct  idea  of  what  varieties  to 
recommend  for  planting  in  the  part  of  the  state  east  of  the  Cas- 
cade range,  where  planting  is  so  much  needed  and  where  it  has 
been  so  deplorably  neglected.  It  should  be  remembered  that 
some  trees  which  are  not  hardy  enough  to  stand  the  climate  in 
this  latitude  may  be  raised  successfully  in  the  warmer  and  irri- 
gated regions  of  the  Yakima  and  the  Walla  Walla  valleys.  The 
time  has  come  when  the  people  must  awake  to  the  necessity  of 
planting  trees.  Nothing  will  so  quickly  and  so  effectively  change 
the  climatic  conditions  of  Eastern  Washington  as  the  planting  of 
trees  in  large  numbers.  It  is  a matter  of  no  small  consequence 
to  have  groves  that  may  break  the  monotonous  appearance  of 
the  landscape.  In  a land  of  homes  everything  that  may  add 
to  the  comfort  and  pleasure  of  life  is  useful,  and  there  is  scarcely 
any  more  dreary  and  depressing  surrounding  than  a treeless 
landscape.  It  would  scarcely  be  thought  worth  while  to  have 
trees  for  shade  for  stock  in  a climate  of  cool  summers,  yet  the 
contrast  of  our  few  warmest  days  of  summer  makes  this  a mat- 
ter of  some  importance.  The  value  of  such  plantations  for  wind 
breaks  not  only  for  the  house,  the  orchard  and  the  stock,  but 
also  for  its  general  effect  upon  the  climate,  will  be  readily  recog- 
nized. Every  farmer  and  land-owner  ought  to  feel  that  it  is  his 
duty  to  plant  a few  acres  in  trees.  He  should  not  plant  after 
the  fashion  of  the  government  “timber  culture”  plantations, 
seven-hundred  or  a thousand  to  the  acre,  but  should  plant  a 
beautiful  grove,  fifty  or  seventy  trees  to  the  acre,  and  cultivate  it 
with  the  same  care  that  he  does  his  orchards.  Hoed  crops  might 
be  cultivated  in  the  grove  for  several  years  until  the  trees  are 
strong  and  deep  rooted  enough  to  withstand  the  summer  drought 
and  the  effect  of  the  winds. 

The  notes  taken  on  the  varieties  in  the  nursery  rows  here  will, 
in  a measure,  answer  the  question  what  to  plant.  It  is  particu- 
larly recommended  that  something  else  besides  Box  Elder  and 
the  Poplars  be  planted,  these  being  used  only  when  nothing 
better  can  be  obtained.  Some  of  the  more  recently  introduced 
Poplars,  e.  g.  the  Russian  Poplar,  however,  seem  to  promise  well. 
The  Box  Elder  and  the  common  Poplars  are  short-lived  and  are 


Forest  Tree  Plantation, 


7 

almost  worthless  for  timber  or  fuel.  Their  quick  growth  is  sup- 
posed to  be  their  recommendation,  but  if  after  they  have  grown 
they  are  of  little  value,  they  will  scarcely  repay  the  cost.  An- 
other tree  might  be  of  slower  growth,  but  it  is  ornamental  when 
small,  and  after  it  has  attained  its  growth  it  will  continue  to  be 
useful  for  a long  period. 

The  following  is  a list  of  the  varieties  planted  on  the  College 
grounds,  together  with  statistics  and  notes  which  will  indicate  in 
a pretty  definite  way  the  relative  value  of  these  varieties  in 
standing  the  vicissitudes  of  soil  and  climate.  The  proportion 
that  have  survived  the  summers  and  the  winters  and  the  chances 
of  trans-plantation  will  be  a matter  of  general  interest  to  the 
public,  as  will  also  the  growth  made  by  the  several  varieties: 

LIST  OF  DECIDUOUS  TREES  AND  SHRUBS. 


(Height  is  given  in  inches.) 


Scientific  name. 

Common  name. 

No.  planted  April  1892. 

No.  surviving  May  1893. 

> 

<1 

§ 

1 

1 

> 

* 

£ 

5 

:a 

|Av.  height  October  1894.  | 

Hardiness. 

Acer  pseudo-platanus 

Sycamore  maple 

100 

1 14 

5 

14 

28  Hardy 

“ clasycarpum 

Silver  maple 

500: 

297 

7 

48 

901  “ 

“ macrophyllum 

Large-leaved  maple 

58 

10 

40 

Tender 

“ platanoid.es 

N orway  maple 

'200 

24 

5 

16 

30  Hardy 

“ rubrum 

Red  maple 

100 

70 

9 

30 

601  “ 

“ campestre 

English  maple 

100 

93 

10 

42 

80 

“ 

“ saccharinum 

Sugar  maple 

.... 

289 

7 

20 

35 

“ circinatum 

Vine  maple 

13 

15  j 

! 25 

Aesculus  liippocastanum 

Red-flowered  horse 

[chestnut 

50 

43 

10 

24 

38 

Aesculus  liippocastanum 

White-flowered  horse 

[chestnut 

100 

88 

10 

24 ! 

40 

Alnus  rubra 

Red  alder 

14 

24  j 

36 

Not  quite  hardy 

Amelanchier  alni folia 

Western  ser viceberry 

331 

42 

70 

Hardy 

“ oligocarpa 

Dwarf  serviceberry 

"50 

18 

io 

38  60 

Asimina  triloba 

Papaw,  Wahoo 

50 

26110 

15 

“ sp. 

European  Wahoo 

50 

22 

5 

12 

26 

Berberis  vulgaris 

Barberry 

100 

19 

7 

18  48 

Betula  alba 

White  birch 

25 

18 

10 

42 

70: 

. “ lutea 

Yellow  birch 

100 

1 

6 

24 

40  Doubtful 

Buxus  sempervirens 

Box 

300 

69 

7 

9 Hardy 

Oalyeanthus,  sp. 

100 

1 

5 

6 

Not  hardy 

Oarpinus  caroliniana 

Hornbeam 

100 

77 

10 

18 

30  Hardy 

Carya  alba 

Hickory 

100 1 

0 

5 

.. 

Doubtful 

Castanea  sativa 

Spanish  chestnut 

100 

80 

7 

12 

28  Fairly  hardy 

“ var.  americana 

American  chestnut 

100 

24 

7 

10 

15 

“ sp. 

Japanese  chestnut 

3 

6 

12  “ 

Catalpa  speciosa 

Hardy  catalpa 

'266 

0 

*6 

Not  hardy 

“ bignonioides 

Catalpa 

100 

54 

7 

24 

40 

“ kaempferi 

Teas’  catalpa 

100 

57 

7 

36 

48 1 

Celtis  occidentalis 

Hackberry 

50 

43 

10 

36 

50  Hardy 

Oeanotlius  velutinus 

Elkbrush 

7 

18 

30 

“ sanguineus 

6 

54 

701  “ 

8 


Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


Cotoneaster  simonsii 

[Rose  box 

25 

21 

7 ; 12 1 24 

Hardy 

Cornus  nuttallii 

Dogwood 

25 

1 

1010  30 

Not  hardy 

“ sanguinea 

Red  dogwood 

75 

57 

15  18  30 

Hardy 

“ sp. 

Siberian  dogwood 

50 

29 

15 

30  50 

Oorylus  americana 

Hazlenut 

30 

21 

1012 

20 

“ 

“ avellana 

English  filbert 

100 

85 

10  12  24 

“ 

Crataegus  tomentosa 

Haw 

100 

56 

10  36  55 

“ 

Cytisus  scoparius 
Fagus  americana 

Broom 

100 

15 

5 24  60 

Beech 

250 

2 

7i 

TO  .. 

Doubtful 

Fraxinus  viridis 

Green  ash 

100 

84 

9 36  60 

H ardy 

“ americana 

White  ash 

100 

101 

7 30  55 

“ ornus 

Flowering  ash 

100 

98 

10  42  65 

“ 

“ Oregana 

Oregon  ash 

36 

..30  60 

“ 

Gymnocladus  canadensis 

Kentucky  coffee  tree 

ioo 

60 

7| 

9 12 

“ 

Juglans  cinerea 

Butternut 

100 

86  1016  20 

“ 

“ nigra 

Black  walnut 

100 

64 

10  1220 

“ 

Laburnum  vulgare 

Laburnum 

50 

33 

914 

“ 

Ligustrum  vulgare 

Privet 

500 

500 

10  18 1 24 

“ 

Lonicera 

Red  bush  honeysuckle 

25 

10 

736150 

“ 

Morus  sp. 

Russian  mulberry 

100 

10 

6112! 

18 

Doubtful 

Negundo  aceroides 

Box  elder 

250 

32 

634 

50 

Hardy 

Philadelphus  Lewisii 

Syringa.  Mock  orange 

30 

24 

50 

Platanus  occidentalis 

American  sycamore 
European  “ 
Balsam  poplar 
Poplar 
White  poplar 
Lombardy  poplar 
Black  cherry 

'ioo 

25 

io 

12 

16 

“ 

“ orientalis 

Populus  balsamifera 

“ var.  candicans 
“ alba 

“ fastigiata 

100 

0 

10 

: 

Doubtful 

Hardy 

Prunus  serotina 

100 

73 

9 42 

65 

“ 

sp. 

Eaton’s  plum 

9 

54 

75 

“ Virginiana 

Choke  cherry 

'ioo 

86 

9 36 

60 

“ 

“ sp. 

Mahaleb  cherry 

250 

41 

6 24 

40 

“ 

“ sp. 

Mazzard  cherry 

250 

95 

6 

30 

50 

“ 

Pyrus  aucuparia 

European  m’t’n  ash 

100 

55 

5 

36 

60 

“ 

“ americana 

American  “ “ 

50 

49  15  40 

55 

“ 

“ sp. 

Seedling  apple 

250 

232 

;10  48 

70 

“ 

“ sp. 

“ pear 

250 

~99 

6 30 

60 

“ 

Quercus  rubra 

Red  oak 

100 

10 

5 

1° 

15 

“ 

“ prinus 

Chestnut  oak 

100 

21 

5 

6 

11 

“ 

robur 

English  oak 

50 

39 

5 

9 

14 

“ 

“ alba 

White  oak 

100 

40 

5 

7 

12 

“ 

Ehamnus  alnifolia 

Buckthorn 

20 

15 

25 

“ 

Kibes  sanguineum 

Red  flowering  currant 

20 

24 

36 

“ 

Kobinia  pseud-acacia 

Black  locust 

'250 

77 

5|  48  65 

“ 

Salix  (several  species) 
Sambucus  racemosa 

Willow 

Red-fruited  elder 

60 

Not  hardy 
Hardy 

Syringa  vulgaris 

Purple  lilac 

25 

22 

5 

30 

40 

Spiraea  ariafolia 
Tili  a Europaea 

Ulmus  americana 
Yirburnum  opulus 

Spiraea 

Large-leaved  linden 
Small 

American  elm 
Tree  cranberry 

18 

54 

•• 

75 

1:: 

1 “ 

LIST  OF  EVERGREEN  TREES. 


Abies  grandis 
“ balsamea 

Silver  fir 

100 

25 

5 

6 

9 

Hardy 

Balsam  fir 

100 

56 

5 

8 

11 

Juniperus  virginiana 

Savin 

100 

8 

5 

6 

9 

Larix  americana 

American  larch 

100 

33 

7 

12 

24 

44 

«“  europaea 

European  “ 

100 

59 

7 

20 

45 

44 

Picea  alba 

White  spruce 

50 

39 

7 

10 

15 

“ excelsa 

Norway  “ 

500 

147 

5 

10 

15 

“ pungens 

Colorado  blue  spruce 

100 

51 

7 

12 

18 

“ nigra 

Black  spru.ee 

100 

24 

5 

10 

16 

Pinus  strobus 

White  pine 

250 

68 

7 

8 

14 

“ pungens 
“ laricio 

Mountain  pine 
Corsican  pine 

50 

25 

50 

0 

10 

i2 

Not  hardy 

“ sylvestris 

Scotch  pine 

100 

17 

7 

17 

44  44 

“ banksiana 

Jack  pine 

50 

6 

7|15 

20 

44  fct 

“ mughus 

Muglio-dwarf  pine 

50 

50 

7 

110 

14 

44  *4 

“ austriaca. 

Austrian  pine 

100 

41 

1 7il0 

14 

I U fct 

Pinus 

Norway  pine 

9 

310112 

17 

Pseudotsuga  Douglasii 
Thuya  occidentalis 

i Douglas  spruce 

100 

8110il2 

18;  Hardy 

iWhite  cedar 

100 

56 

! 5 

1 6 

9 

“ gigantea 

Giant  cedar 

16  . . 

4 

i 7 

“ sp. 

T.  Thumb  arborvitae 

' 50 

3 

71 

6 

9 Doubtful 

Tsuga  canadensis  * 

1 Hemlock. 

100 

0 

5 

Forest  Tree  Plantation, 


9 


ACER.  MAPLE. 

A valuable  and  highly  ornamental  family  of  trees.  The 
Maples  are  as  a rule  symmetrical  and  regular  in  outline,  beau- 
tiful in  foliage,  vigorous  growers,  very  free  from  diseases,  and 
adapted  to  most  soils,  merits  which  deservedly  render  them  pop- 
ular. Some  varieties,  however,  are  not  hardy  here  (altitude 
2400  ft.),  notably  acer  macrophyllum,  the  large  leaved  or  Oregon 
Maple.  This  is  a beautiful  shade  tree  west  of  the  mountains 
where  it  is  indigeous,  and  it  is  much  used  for  street  and  yard  plant- 
ing there.  With  us  it  winter  kills  badly.  In  the  valley  of  the 
Snake  River  it  thrives  and  forms  a handsome  tree. 

The  Silver  Maple  (Acer  dasycarpum),  is  perhaps  the  very  best 
of  all  the  maples  for  planting  where  a rapid  growth  is  desired. 
The  tree  is  very  har  :ly,  easily  transplanted,  grows  large  in  an 
irregular  rounded  head.  The  foliage  is  bright  green  above  and 
silvery  white  beneath.  A good  tree  for  street  planting,  and  val- 
uable as  a windbreak  for  orchards  and  farm  buildings.  It  is  as 
good  a nurse  tree  as  Box  Elder  and  much  more  desirable  on 
account  of  its  utility  and  freedom  from  insects.  There  are  sev- 
eral varieties  of  the  Silver  Maple,  some  of  them  very  ornamental, 
notably  the  cut  leaved  kinds,  which  are  mostly  dwarf  and  suit- 
able as  planting  as  solitary  specimens  in  yards  and  parks. 

As  a family  the  Maples  cannot  be  too  highly  praised;  they  are 
all  beautiful,  and  are  to  be  highly  commended  for  planting  in 
our  state. 

The  Sugar  Maple  (Acer  saccharnum),  is  a fine  tree;  one  of  the 
most  desirable  for  ornamental  purposes.  A very  large  percentage 
of  those  planted  survived,  seem  perfectly  hardy  and  show  good 
growth.  Larger  trees  planted  on  the  college  c?.mpus  have  also 
done  remarkably  well.  It  is  of  rather  slow  growth,  particularly 
in  the  earlier  years,  but  grows  more  rapidly  later.  It  is  strongly 
recommended  for  this  part  of  the  state. 

The  Sycamore  Maple,  Norway  Maple  and  English  Maple  are 
also  recommended.  Ninety-three  per  cent,  of  the  latter  grew, 
and  from  an  average  of  ten  inches  at  time  of  planting  grew  to 
forty-two  inches  in  the  two  years. 

iESCULUS  HIPPOCASTANUM — HORSE  CHESTNUT. 

On  our  grounds  we  have  the  red  and  the  white  flowered  varie- 
ties of  these  truly,  beautiful  trees.  They  promise  to  do  well  here, 
having  made  a satisfactory  growth  and  show  great  hardiness. 


10 


Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


Specimens  planted  in  a yard  in  Pullman  not  over  six  years  ago 
bore  several  flowers  the  past  year. 

Though  very  useful  for  yard  and  street  planting,  they  are  not 
very  suitable  for  a grove  unless  put  in  the  outside  ro\y.  The 
wood  is  not  very  valuable. 

BETULA.  BIRCH. 

On  our  trial  grounds  are  twro  varieties  of  this  truly  beautiful 
genus.  All  the  Birches  are  highly  ornamental.  Their  elegant, 
slender  branches,  silvery  bark  and  light  airy  foliage  render  them 
general  favorites  as  single  specimens  on  the  lawn  or  employed  as 
avenue  trees.  They  are  very  imposing  and  handsome.  They 
have  done  well  with  us  and  will  be  largely  planted  on  the  cam- 
pus and  in  the  arboretum. 

CARPINUS.  HORNHEAM. 

This  is  a dwarf  tree,  grows  fifteen  to  twenty  feet  high,  and  is 
very  similar  to  the  Beech  in  habit  of  growth.  Planted  close  it 
forms  a very  effective  wind-break.  And  clipped  it  makes  a very 
handsome  hedge.  Very  hardy  and  is  sure  to  do  well  in  Wash- 
ington. 

CATALPA. 

Several  varieties  of  Catalpa  were  planted  here  for  trial.  We 
cannot  recommend  them,  however,  as  they  winter  kill  very  badly, 
and  the  cold  winds  in  spring  shrivel  the  foliage.  In  the  more 
sheltered  parts  of  our  state  they  ought  to  do  well,  and  their  large 
beautiful  leaves  render  them  desirable  for  ornamental  trees  when 
the  climate  is  sufficiently  mild. 

FRAXINUS.  ASH. 

All  the  varieties  of  Ash  planted  here  in  1892  have  done  remark- 
ably well.  Mere  switches  when  planted,  they  are  now  (Septem- 
ber) fine  young  trees,  six  to  eight  feet  high,  good  bodies  and  nice 
foliage.  For  permanent  plantation  all  the  varieties  of  Ash  are 
very  desirable.  Twenty-five  feet  each  way  is  enough  for  ash,  and 
they  should  be  planted  in  the  center  of  the  grove,  for  they  grow 
tall  and  form  nice  heads. 

NUT-BEARING  TREES. 

It  is  a pleasure  to  record  the  success  that  has  been  attained 
with  Walnuts  in  this  vicinity.  On  a ranch  about  two  miles 
from  the  College  grounds,  belonging  to  Mr.  J.  XL  Burnham,  are 
growing  Walnut,  Butternut,  Hickory  nut  and  Shell- bark  Hickory, 
quite  a number  of  trees,  all  about  ten  years  old.  For  several 


Forest  Tree  Plantation. 


11 


years  past  these  trees  have  borne  quite  a number  of  nuts.  They 
are  fifteen  or  twenty  feet  high,  thrifty  and  vigorous  and  are  funn- 
ing splendid  heads.  They  have  had  very  little  cultivation 
except  what  the  hogs  have  given  them.  Mr.  Burnham,  being  an 
extensive  hog  raiser,  uses  the  grove  for  a hog  lot  to  the  benefit  of 
the  trees,  apparently.  The  excellent  showing  these  trees  have 
made  augurs  well  for  the  future  of  nut  growing  in  this  part  of 
the  state.  Amongst  the  smaller  nuts,  English  and  American 
Filberts  have  made  a good  growth  and  promise  to  do  well.  The 
Spanish  Chestnut,  though  growing  slowly  in  this  locality,  is  a 
very  beautiful  ornamental  tree  suitable  for  yard  planting. 

It  is  strongly  recommended  that  groves  of  nut-bearing  trees  be 
planted.  These  not  only  add  to  the  comforts  of  the  farmer’s 
home,  but  may  become  a very  considerable  source  of  revenue. 

PLATANUS. — PLANE  TREE,  SYCAMORE  OR  BUTTON  WOOD. 

This  well-known,  hardy  and  beautiful  tree  is  well  adapted  for  * 
most  kinds  of  ornamentation.  Whether  planted  in  a grove  or  by 
itself,  it  is  always  the  same  imposing  tree.  It  is  not  particular 
as  to  soil,  thriving  equally  well  on  the  sandy  hill  or  the  loamy 
valley.  It  has  one  bad  fault — the  dropping  of  its  leaves  too  early 
in  the  fall.  The  foliage,  too,  is  rather  scanty. 

POPULUS.  POPLAR. 

If  it  is  desired  to  fill  in  a spot  quickly,  to  make  a wind-break 
or  hide  an  unsightly  object,  there  is  hardly  any  tree  that  will  do 
it  as  soon  as  the  Poplar. 

Some  five  or  six  varieties  of  Poplar  were  planted  on  our  trial 
grounds,  and  all  without  exception  have  done  well.  They  have 
outstripped  everything  else  in  growth  except  the  Willows  and 
possibly  the  Silver  Maple.  They  are  easily  propagated  from 
cuttings,  and  as  they  adapt  themselves  to  almost  every  condition, 
they  have  become  even  more  popular  than  they  deserve.  For 
they  are,  as  a rule,  short  lived,  have  no  value  as  timber,  very  few 
of  them  are  really  beautiful,  and,  at  least  so  far  as  the  Native 
and  Lombardy  Poplars  are  'concerned,  are  very  subject  to  aphis 
and  other  insect  pests.  The  Russian  Poplars  that  we  have 
observed  on  our  grounds  and  in  the  vicinity  have  done  very 
nicely  and  are  fine  looking  trees.  Some  specimens  in  Mr.  Rea- 
ney’s  grove,  near  the  College  grounds,  are  among  the  most  attrac- 
tive and  largest  trees  in  the  grove. 


12 


Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


MOUNTAIN  ASH. 

There  are  several  varieties  of  these  truly  beautiful  trees,  than 
which  there  is  no  finer  for  lawn  ornamentation.  We  have  grow- 
ing Pyrus  Americana,  American  Mountain  Ash,  and  Pyrus 
Ancuparia  or  European  Mountain  Ash.  Both  have  done  well 
and  cannot  be  too  highly  commended  for  planting  in  small  yards. 
The  beautiful  clusters  of  bright  red  berries  in  the  later  summer 
and  fall  afford  a fine  contrast  to  the  dark  green  foliage.  They 
grow  fifteen  to  twenty  feet  high  in  this  altitude. 

QUERCUS.  OAK. 

The  several  kinds  of  Oak  planted  here  have  made  very  little 
growth  compared  to  the  other  growing  trees  in  the  nursery  rows. 
It  must  be  borne  in  mind,  however,  that  the  Oak  is  a slow  grower 
and  a very  long-lived  tree.  Oaks  might  be  planted,  if  not  for 
your  own,  for  the  enjoyment  of  your  descendants. 

The  Royal  Oak,  (Q.  robur),  has  done  best  amongst  those 
planted  here. 

ROBINA.  LOCUST. 

A hedge  of  Black  Locust,  (R.  Psend-acacia),  that  was  planted 
here  two  years  ago  has  made  very  satisfactory  growth. 

There  are  several  varieties  of  Locust;  all  suitable  for  road-side 
or  grove  planting,  and  are  all  desirable  trees.  Their  timber  is 
valuable  for  fence  posts,  and  the  bees  gather  large  quantities  of 
fine  nectar  from  the  flowers. 

SALIX.  WILLOW. 

“They  grow  as  easily  as  a Willow,”  is  a common  expression. 
There  are  ten  or  more  varieties  of  Willow  native  to  our  state. 
Wherever  there  is  moist  ground,  there  Willows  will  grow.  While 
the  Willow  has  no  timber  value,  yet  it  forms  an  ornamental 
object  for  the  landscape.  If  you  wish  Willows,  get  cuttings  in  the 
fall  or  spring  and  stick  them  in  where  you  want  them  to  grow 
and  you  will  soon  have  some  shrubbery  at  least. 

TILIA.  LINDEN  OR  LIME  TREE.  BASSWOOD. 

The  Lindens  are  all  beautiful,  and  merit  a great  deal  more 
attention  than  they  usually  receive.  There  is  no  more  beautiful 
shade  tree  than  the  Linden,  excellent  for  grouping  or  planting  as 
a solitary  object.  In  bloom,  the  Linden  has  a very  delicate  per- 
fume. It  is  also  a fine  honey  plant.  For  a row  to  border  a drive 
nothing  is  finer  than  the  Linden,  either  European  or  American 
varieties.  They  grow  in  beautiful  proportions  and  give  a pleas- 


Forest  Tree  Plantation. 


13 


ing  effect  to  the  landscape. 

ULMUS.  ELM. 

Many  of  the  Elms  are  so  well  known  that  it  is  unnecessary  to 
call  attention  to  their  great  value  as  timber  and  shade  trees. 
They  are  exceedingly  desirable  as  ornaments  for  parks  and  drives 
as  well  as  for  solitary  objects  for  large  lawns.  Elms  planted  a 
year  ago  in  Reaney’s  grove,  before  referred  to,  have  shown  a 
remarkable  growth.  Where  rapid  growth  is  very  desirable  the 
Elm  would  be  recommended  as  much  to  be  preferred  to  the 
shorter  lived  trees  so  commonly  selected.  By  all  means  plant 
Elm. 

There  are  many  varieties.  All  more  or  less  beautiful.  The 
Elms  planted  here  have  made  a good  growth  and  promise  to  do 
well  in  future. 


EVERGREENS. 

Washington  is  the  Evergreen  State.  Her  list  of  deciduous 
trees  is  very  short  indeed,  especially  as  compared  with  the  Ever- 
green. This  would  indicate  the  probability  of  the  successful  plant- 
ing of  Evergreens  in  our  treeless  regions.  The  list  of  Evergreens 
that  I would  recommend  to  plant  for  shelter  and  wind-breaks  is 
not  very  long. 

ABIES,  THE  FIR.  PICEA,  SPRUCE.  TSUGA,  THE  HEMLOCK. 

First  I would  mention  Picea  Alba,  White  Spruce,  a valuable 
variety  varying  in  height  from  25  to  100  feet,  foliage  silvery  gray, 
with  light  colored  bark.  The  tree  assumes  a beautiful  form  and 
is  perfectly  hardy. 

Douglas  Spruce,  (Psendotsuga.  Douglasii),  is  one  of  our  native 
species.  A beautiful  tree,  very  much  sought  after  by  European 
planters,  and  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  very  best  Evergreens  for 
forest  planting. 

BLUE  SPRUCE.  PICEA  PUNGENS. 

Is  found  quite  plentifully  in  the  low  range  of  hills  some  fifteen 
miles  east  of  the  College  grounds.  One  of  the  hardiest  and  most 
beautiful  of  Spruces.  The  foliage  is  of  a rich  blue-green  color. 
It  is  very  handsome  as  a single  specimen  or  in  groups. 

NORWAY  SPRUCE.  PICEA  EXCELSA. 

This  well-known  Spruce  has,  perhaps,  been  more  largely  planted 
than  all  the  other  Spruces  put  together.  As  a wind-break  it  is 


14 


Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


invaluable,  perfectly  hardy  and  feathers  close  to  the  ground. 
Three  or  four  rows  planted  moderately  close  together  on  the  wind- 
ward side  of  an  orchard  will  be  found  a great  protection.  Ever- 
greens should  be  cultivated  several  years  after  planting,  or  until 
they  are  thoroughly  established. 

SILVER  FIR.  A.  CEPHALONICA. 

The  Silver  Firs  are  all  worthy  of  cultivation,  and  some  of  them 
should  be  included  in  every  collection  of  any  size. 

Pinus  Mungus,  or  Dwarf  Pine,  however,  should  be  mentioned. 
This  species  did  finely  and  is  a beautiful  shrub  for  lawn  orna- 
mentation. The  Pines,  the  Yews,  the  Cypress,  Arbor  Vitae,  etc., 
might  be  mentioned,  but  the  Evergreens  in  the  Station  plantings, 
have,  as  a rule,  not  done  well.  This  is,  no  doubt,  partly  due  to 
the  bad  condition  of  the  stock  planted. 

Amongst  the  coniferous  trees  planted  here,  none  have  done 
better  than  the  Larch,  Laril.  Europea.  L.  Americana. 

They  have  made  rapid  and  healthy  growth  and  promise  to 
make  their  mark  amongst  the  trees  planted  in  Washington.  Our 
native  Larch,  (L.  occidentali),  was  not  in  our  planting,  but  it 
would  seem  to  promise  as  well  as  the  other  varieties.  Seeds  of 
most  of  our  coniferous  trees  can  easily  be  collected  in  September 
and  October,  and  the  seed  ought  to  be  planted  at  once. 

This  rule  applies  to  all  forest  trees.  When  the  seed  is  ripe  is 
the  time  to  plant  it.  Sow  thinly  by  hand  in  rows  or  drills  about 
an  inch  deep  and  cover  lightly,  then  with  the  feet  tramp  firmly 
down.  Cultivate  carefully  until  large  enough  to  transplant,  then 
lift  carefully  and  plant  in  their  permanent  home,  being  careful 
to  give  the  roots  plenty  of  room  and  adjust  them  carefully. 

HEDGE  PLANTS.  FOR  ORNAMENTS. 

For  this  purpose  we  recommend  several  of  the  Evergreens, 
such  as  American  and  Siberian  Arbor  Vita,  Norway  Spruce,  Aus- 
tralian and  Scotch  Pines,  and  many  of  the  deciduous  and  Ever- 
green shrubs  such  as  Japan  Quince,  Tanarix.,  Barberry,  Haw 
Buckthorn,  Hornbean,  etc. 

The  finest  Evergreen  hedge  I have  ever  seen  was  one  of  Hem- 
lock Spruce,  (Abies  Canadensis). 

The  Yew  makes  a very  beautiful  and  long-lived  hedge,  as  also 
does  the  Holly.  Tree  Box  is  an  excellent  hedge  plant  and  is 
always  beautiful,  winter  or  summer. 

The  American  Barberry  (B.  varlgais),  makes  a very  beautiful 


Forest  Tree  Plantation. 


15 


hedge.  And  for  those  who  cannot  spare  the  time  to  trim  a hedge 
this  plant  is  very  desirable.  It  has  beautiful  yellow  flowers  in 
the  spring,  followed  by  red  berries  in  the  fall. 

Amongst  hedge  plants  for  defensive  purposes,  to  turn  cattle, 
etc.,  I would  recommend  Honey  Locust,  Osage  Orange,  our  native 
Hawthorne,  etc.  The  seed  of  the  latter  can  be  gathered  in  the 
fall  and  planted  where  it  is  intended  to  grow  the  hedge.  To  have 
the  best  success  with  a hedge  the  young  plants  ought  to  be  clipped 
or  pinched  when  they  are  very  young,  so  as  to  keep  the  bottom 
of  the  hedge  quite  full.  Deciduous  hedge  plants  can  be  planted 
any  time  after  the  leaves  have  fallen  and  when  the  ground  is  not 
frozen.  Spring  is  the  best  time  to  transplant  all  Evergreen  trees 
and  shrubs. 


NOTES  MAY,  1894. 

DECIDUOUS  TREES  AND  SHRUBS. 

Sycamore  Maple — Although  a comparatively  small  portion  of 
this  species  survived,  it  seems  a good  tree.  Not  a 
rapid  grower 

Silver  Maple — The  best  Maple  for  rapid  growth.  Should  be  planted 
for  groves  in  preference  to  Box  Elder. 

Large-leaved  Maple — A native  west  of  the  Cascade  mountains. 
The  young  shoots  winter-kill  badly  with  us. 

Norway  Maple — The  trees  look  healthy  but  have  made  but  little 
growth. 

Red  Maple — A rapid  grower.  The  tips  of  the  shoots  winter-kill 
occasionally. 

English  Maple — A handsome,  compact,  rapid  growing  species. 

Sugar  Maple — An  excellent  tree,  but  slower  of  growth  than  other 
Maples. 

Vine  Maple — A small  but  ornamental  Maple,  native  to  Western 
Washington.  Requires  moist  ground. 

Red  and  White-flowered  Horse  Chestnut — Both  of  these  are 
rapid  growers. 

Red  Alder — Another  tree  native  west  of  the  Cascades.  The  young 
shoots  winter-kill  with  us. 

Western  Serviceberry — Our  common  native  species.  Apparently 
an  excellent  shrub  for  a hedge  or  a wind-break. 

Dwarf  Serviceberry — Very  similar  to  the  above  in  all  respects. 


16 


Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


Barberry — An  excellent  hedge  plant.  Berries  edible. 

White  Birch — The  trees  have  made  excellent  growth.  A prom- 
ising ornamental  tree. 

Yellow  Birch — The  only  surviving  tree  looks  healthy. 

Hornbeam — A good  ornamental  tree  of  fairly  rapid  growth. 

Hickory — All  of  our  specimens  are  dead.  Cause  unknown. 

Spanish  Chestnut,  American  Chestnut  and  Japanese  Chestnut — 
None  of  these  species  are  doing  well. 

Hardy  Catalpa,  Catalpa  and  Teas’  Catalpa — None  of  the  first 
species  remain.  The  others  grow  rapidly  but  winter- 
kill  badly.  A slight  frost  of  May  11,  this  year, 
killed  back  the  growing  shoots  several  inches. 

Hackberry — This  tree  is  a native;  a rather  slow  grower,  but  de- 
sirable both  for  shade  and  for  ornament. 

Elkbrush  and Both  of  these  are  native  shrubs  and 

desirable  for  ornaments. 

Rose  Box — A well-known  ornamental  shrub. 

Dogwood — Native  of  Western  Washington.  Too  tender  for  our 
climate. 

Red  and  Siberian  Dogwood — Both  of  these  are  rather  tall  orna- 
mental shrubs. 

Hazlenut  and  English  Filbert — Both  species  do  well. 

Haw — A good  hedge  plant,  but  perhaps  no  better  than  our  native 
specie. 

Broom — A rapid  growing  hedge  or  ornamental  shrub.  The  tips 
of  the  branches  winter-kill  slightly. 

Beech — Has  done  very  poorly. 

Green  Ash,  White  Ash,  Flowering  Ash  and  Oregon  Ash — All  of 
these  Ashes  have  made  excellent  growth,  are  per- 
fectly healthy,  and,  taken  all  in  all,  among  the  best 
trees  in  the  lot. 

Kentucky  Coffee-tree — A very  ornamental  tree.  The  branch  tips 
winter-kill  slightly. 

Butternut — These  have  made  a satisfactory  growth,  and  appear 
promising. 

Laburnum — Does  very  well.  A fine  ornamental  shrub. 

Black  Walnut — A good  hardy  tree. 

Privet — An  excellent  garden  hedge  plant. 

Red  Bush  Honeysuckle — An  ornamental  shrub. 

Russian  Mulberry — The  specimens  do  not  look  healthy,  and  are 


Forest  Tree  Plantation 


17 


more  or  less  winter-killed. 

Syringa  or  Mock  Orange — A native  shrub  of  high  ornamental 
value. 

American  Sycamore — The  trees  do  not  seem  healthy. 

Balsam  Poplar,  Poplar,  White  Poplar  and  Lombardy  Poplar — 
All  forms  of  these  Poplars  have  made  a large  growth. 

Black  Cherry — A line  hedge  plant. 

Choke  Cherry — Nearly  the  same  as  our  choke  cherry  and  in  all 
respects  very  similar. 

Mahaleb  Cherry--A  ver\T  good  plant  for  dense  hedge. 

European  Mountain  Ash  and  American  Mountain  Ash — Both 
of  these  are  rapid  growers. 

Red  Oak,  Chestnut  Oak,  English  Oak  and  White  Oak — These 
oaks  are  doing  well,  but  are  of  slow  growth. 

Buckthorn — A native  shrub  or  small  tree  of  ornamental  value. 

Red-flowering  currant — A highly  ornamental  shrub  native  to 
Western  Washington.  The  tips  winter  kill  slightly. 

Black  Locust — An  excellent  tree. 

Willow — All  of  these  willows  do  well  but  for  most  purposes  are 
little  better  than  native  species. 

Spiraea — A native  ornamental  shrub. 

Large-leaved  Linden — Hardy. 

Small-leaved  Linden — Hardy.  A much  better  tree  than  the 
preceding. 

American  Elm — Hardy.  Lias  made  a splendid  growth. 

Tree  Cranberry — Hardy. 

EVERGREEN  TREES  AND  SHRUBS. 

Silver  Fir — A native  species.  Has  not  done  well. 

Balsam  Fir — Grows  only  fairly  well. 

Savin — Done  very  poorly. 

American  Larch  and  European  Larch — Both  of  these  varieties 
have  done  very  well.  The  European  species  seems 
to  be  the  more  rapid  grower. 

White  Spruce,  Norway  Spruce,  Colorado  Blue  Spruce  and  Black 
Spruce — All  of  these  shrubs  have  made  a satisfac- 
tory growth.  The  Norway  and  White  Spruces  are 
the  best  in  appearance,  but  have  not  grown  so  rap- 
idly as  the  Blue  Spruce. 

White  Pine,  Mountain  Pine,  Corsican  Pine,  Scotch  Pine,  Jack 
Pine,  Mugho  Dwarf  Pine,  Austrian  Pine  and  Nor- 


18 


Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


way  Pine — Excepting  the  Corsican  species,  all  these 
Pines  are  healthy  and  have  made  good  growth. 

Douglas  Spruce — Our  common  native  fir.  Although  considered 
one  of  the  best,  it  has  done  very  poorly  with  us. 

White  Cedar — Has  made  but  little  growth,  though  the  plant 
seems  perfectly  healthy. 

Giant  Cedar — Our  native  cedar.  Has  not  done  well. 

Tom  Thumb  Arbor  Vitae — A very  small  ornamental  species. 
Does  not  seem  hardy. 


Forest  Tree  Plantation. 


19 


NOTES. 

Additional  notes  were  taken  on  the  growth  of  the  trees  in  the 
fall  of  1894  after  they  had  made  their  full  growth.  The  progress 
made  by  the  trees  was  very  satisfactory.  Some  species,  however, 
did  much  better  than  others.  The  silver  maples  lead  all  the 
others  in  length  of  shoots — many  of  the  new  growths  being  60 
to  65  inches  long.  The  poplars  are  a close  second  in  size,  espec- 
ially the  Lombardy.  Many  of  them  are  now  over  7 ft.  high  and 
in  good  proportion.  The  ash  in  its  several  varieties  still  main- 
tain the  places  given  them  in  the  fore  part  of  the  bulletin. 
Shoots  of  4 to  5 feet  long  are  quite  common.  The  English  ma- 
ples made  quite  a remarkable  growth  and  promise  to  be  very 
useful  trees  for  ornamental  planting  and  ought  to  be  valuable  as 
wind-breaks  as  they  have  a tendency  to  grow  very  bushy  as  seen 
here  on  our  trial  grounds.  The  elm  does  very  well  but  has  a ten- 
dency to  branch  out  right  down  to  the  ground,  in  fact  this  habit  of 
brushing  out  very  low,  instead  of  growing  straight  up  and  form- 
ing a nice  tree  seems  to  prevail  in  almost  all  the  forest  trees  we 
have  tried.  This  habit  is  especially  noticeable  in  the  lindens, 
maples  and  elms.  The  seedling  apple,  pear  and  cherry  have 
made  very  satisfactory  growth  and  are  very  brushy.  This  habit 
of  growing  bushy  all  trees  and  shrubs  seem  to  take  on  here  ought 
to  be  in  favor  of  making  very  fine  hedges.  A plant  that  is  use- 
ful in  forming  hedges  in  other  localities  is  doubly  so  here  owing 
to  this  tendency.  Among  the  hedge  plants  on  trial  the  Scotch 
broom  leads  all  in  length  of  growth.  It  will  require  severe 
pruning,  if  in  rich  soil,  to  keep  it  in  bounds  of  a low  hedge.  It 
has  the  additional  good  quality  of  being  evergreen. 

WIND-BREAKS. 

In  a treeless  country  like  Eastern  Washington  where  the  winds 
have  a clear  sweep  for  many  miles  across  the  undulating  plains, 
the  question  of  wind-breaks  is  a very  important  one.  There  can 
be  no  question  that  the  evergreens  are  the  best  trees  to  plant  for 
shelter,  and  of  all  evergreens  the  spruces  and  firs  must  have  first 
choice.  The  Norway  spruce  (Abies  excelsa)  has  been  used  large- 
ly for  this  purpose  and  is  certainly  well  adapted  for  the  purpose. 
Its  great  hardiness,  rapid  growth,  beautiful  form  and  drought  re- 
sisting qualities  claim  for  it  a place  in  the  first  rank  of  trees 
suitable  for  a wind-break.  Several  of  our  native]  spruces  are 
quite  as  valuable  as  the  Norway  variety  and  are  certainly  more 


20  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

easily  obtained.  The  white  spruce  (Abies  alba),  the  Douglass 
spruce  (Albies  Douglasi),  the  Colorado  blue  spruce  (Albies  pun- 
gens),  and  several  of  the  silver  firs,  especially  Nordman’s  silver 
fir,  or  Russian  fir  as  it  is  often  called  (Picea  Nordmannana)  are 
all  exceedingly  well  adapted  to  forming  shelter,  whether  it  be  to 
orchards  or  farm  buildings.  None  of  the  deciduous  trees  will 
compare  with  the  above  as  a protection  against  wind.  Prof.  Ed- 
ward J.  Wickson  recommends  the  apricot  as  a wind-break. 
Judging  from  its  rapid  growth  and  numerous  branches,  planted 
close  and  left  unpruned  it  might  prove  valuable  in  our  state;  The 
best  wind-break  that  I can  recommend  would  be  three  rows  of 

one  of  the  above  evergreens  planted  thus  — — — — — — 

15  feet  between  the  rows  and  the  same  number  of  feet  between 
plants  in  the  rows.  It  is.  unnecessary  to  state  that  the  rows  of 
trees  ought  to  be  planted  on  the  side  of  the  orchard  or  buildings 
from  which  the  prevailing  winds  come.  Spring  is  the  best  time 
to  plant  evergreens  and  the  best  success  is  obtained  if  the  plant- 
ing is  done  after  settled  weather  has  come  and  just  as  the  trees 
are  commencing  to  make  new  growth.  After  planting,  having 
exposed  the  roots  as  little  as  possible  to  sun  and  air,  thoroughly 
water  every  tree  so  as  to  settle  the  soil  firmly  about  its  roots.  A 
mulch  of  course  litter  around  the  tree  will  be  of  benefit  the  first 
season,  and  frequent  waterings  the  first  two  season  ought  to  be 
resorted  to.  Plow  the  ground  between  the  rows  once  a year  with 
a breaking  plowing  until  the  trees  are  big  enough  to  interfere 
with  the  operation.  This  will  encourage  the  trees  to  root  deep- 
ly where  they  will  be  less  affected  by  drouth.  A cheap  but 
somewhat  short-lived  wind-break  can  be  made  by  planting  any 
of  the  close-growing  poplars.  The  Lombardy  is  probably  best 
for  this  work.  Plant  8 to  10  feet  apart  and  5 to  10  rows  wide, 
cultivate  each  season  with  shovel  cultivator  until  the  trees  be- 
come well  established.  A better  shelter  than  the  poplars  can  be 
made  of  European  larch  (Larix  Europea)  and  silver  maple 
(Acer  dasycarpum),  planting  first  a row  of  maple  and  then  a 
row  of  larch — three  or  four  rows  of  each.  Plant  not  closer  than 
ten  feet — fifteen  feet  is  better — between  the  rows  and  the  same 
distance  in  the  row.  It  may  be  remarked  that  a deciduous  wind- 
break is  only  effective  in  summer  and  that  it  will  require  two  or 
three  times  the  amount  of  land  on  which  to  plant  a deciduous 
wind-break  to  that  required  for  one  composed  of  evergreens 
alone.  So  that  evergreene  at  20  cents  each  would  be  cheaper 
than  deciduous  trees  at  half  the  price  and  would  besides  make  a 
better  shelter  and  use  less  land. 


WASHINGTON  STATE  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE  AND 
SCHOOL  OF  SCIENCE. 


K 


Experiment  Station, 


PULLMAN,  WASHINGTON. 


Bulletin  13. 


DEPARTMENT  OF  CHEMISTRY. 


WASHINGTON  SOILS. 

By  Elton  Fulmer,  A.  M.,  and 
C.  C.  Fletcher,  B.  Sc. 


All  Bulletins  of  this  Station  are  sent  free  to  residents  of  the  State. 
Persons  desiring  their  names  on  our  mailing  list  should  address 

- PRESIDENT  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE, 

PULLMAN,  WASHINGTON. 


OLYMPIA,  WASH.: 

O.  C.  WHITE,  . . . STATE  PRINTER. 

1894. 


WASHINGTON  STATE  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE  AND 
SCHOOL  OF  SCIENCE. 


Expeeiment  Station, 

PULLMAN,  WASHINGTON. 


Bulletin  13. 


DEPARTMENT  OF  CHEMISTRY. 

WASHINGTON  SOILS. 

By  Elton  Fulmer,  A.  M.,  and 
C.  C.  Fletcher,  B.Sc. 


All  Bulletins  of  this  Station  are  sent  free  to  residents  of  the  State. 
Persons  desiring  their  names  on  our  mailing  list  should  address 

PRESIDENT  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE, 

PULLMAN,  WASHINGTON. 


OLYMPIA,  WASH.: 

O.  C.  WHITE,  . . . STATE  PRINTER. 

1894. 


BOARD  OF  REGENTS. 


Chas.  R.  Conner,  President , Spokane. 

T.  R.  Tannatt,  Vice  President , Farmington. 

J.  W.  Stearns,  Treasurer , Tekoa. 

E.  S.  Ingraham, Seattle. 

H.  S.  Blandford, Walla  Walla. 


STATION  STAFF. 


Enoch  A.  Bryan,  A.  M., 

Chas.  V.  Piper,  B.  Sc.,  . 
Elton  Fulmer,  A.  M.,  . 

John  A.  Balmer,  .... 
W.  J.  Spillman,  M.  S.,  . 

Clarence  C.  Fletcher,  B.  Sc., 


Director. 

Entomologist. 

Chemist. 

Horticulturist. 

Agriculturist. 

Assistant  Chemist. 


WASHINGTON  SOILS. 


Elton  Fulmer,  A.  M. 
C.  C.  Fletcher,  B.  Sc. 


The  chemical  department  of  this  Station  began  last  fall  the  work 
of  an  exhaustive  soil  survey  of  the  state.  It  is,  perhaps,  needless 
to  remark  that  this  work  will  of  necessity  require  a number  of 
years  for  its  completion.  Information  and  data  are  being  compiled 
from  field  work  as  well  as  from  the  results  of  analyses.  It  is  ex- 
pected that  this  survey,  when  completed,  will  be  of  much  value  to 
the  agricultural  and  horticultural  interests  of  Washington. 

The  work  embodied  in  this  bulletin  is  but  a very  small  begin- 
ning. The  mechanical  analysis  of  these  same  soils  will  be  per- 
formed as  soon  as  possible;  and  the  mechanical  and  chemical 
analysis  of  new  samples  will  be  carried  on  as  rapidly  as  other  work 
will  permit.  The  larger  part  of  the  analytical  work  herein  repre- 
sented has  been  most  ably  performed  by  Mr.  C.  C.  Fletcher,  the 
assistant  chemist. 

The  following  bulletin  is  but  a preliminary  one,  and  is  only 
issued  at  this  time  to  meet  the  demands  that  have  been  made  for 
some  definite  knowledge  of  the  composition  of  Washington  soils. 
This  demand  is  rapidly  increasing,  both  in  the  eastern  and  western 
portions  of  the  state,  and  comes  from  farmers,  fruit  growers,  gar- 
deners and  capitalists. 

The  varieties  of  soil  found  in  the  state  are  so  numerous,  and  the 
climatic  conditions  in  different  portions  so  very  unlike,  that  it  often 
becomes  a difficult  and  sometimes  impossible  task  to  determine, 
without  analytical  aid,  whether  the  failure  or  poor  development  of 
certain  plants  should  be  attributed  to  a deficiency  in  the  soil,  to 
climatic  conditions,  or  to  both  causes.  In  traveling  through  the 
different  sections  of  the  state,  one  may  not  infrequently  see  total  or 
partial  failures  of  crops  that  are  due  to  none  of  the  above  causes, 


6 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


but  are  very  largely  the  result  of  improper  cultivation.  It  is  not 
the  purpose  of  this  bulletin  to  criticise  the  methods  of  cultivation 
(perhaps  more  correctly,  lack  of  methods)  employed  by  many  en- 
gaged in  farming  in  this  state.  We  would  suggest,  however,  that 
the  matter  of  proper  cultivation  be  carefully  considered  before  con- 
demning any  soil  as  unlit  for  the  production  of  given  crops,  and 
before  calling  upon  the  chemist  to  determine  its  weak  point.  Many 
so-called  poor  soils  will  be  as  much  or  more  benefited  by  a gener- 
ous application  of  intelligence  and  industry  than  by  the  use  of 
manufactured  fertilizers. 

The  following  pages  contain  the  results  obtained  from  the  analy- 
sis of  twenty  soils  from  various  portions  of  the  state.  “Is  this  a 
good  beet  soil?”  “Will  prunes  and  hops  do  well  on  this  soil?” 
“Will  it  pay  to  fertilize  such  land?”  and  many  other  questions 
of  a similar  character,  accompanied  these  samples. 

In  order  to  make  a discussion  of  the  analysis  of  soils  more  easily 
comprehended,  a few  words  concerning  their  origin  and  general 
make-up  will  be  necessary. 

ORIGIN  OF  SOILS. 

All  soils  are  produced  by  the  decomposition  or  disintegration  of 
the  original  rock  masses.  We  are  apt  to  look  upon  rocks  as  being 
very  durable,  and  so  they  are.  But  they  are  not  proof  against  the 
action  of  certain  agencies  that  are  continually  at  work  tearing  them 
apart  and  breaking  them  in  pieces.  The  most  important  of  these 
agencies  are  water,  air  and  frost.  All  rocks  are  more  or  less  por- 
ous, and  absorb  considerable  water,  which  freezes  during  the  cold 
weather.  The  tremendous  expansive  force  exerted  when  water 
changes  to  ice  is  well  known,  and  this  force  is  sufficient  to  tear  the 
rocks  apart.  The  rapidity  with  which  rock  decomposition  is  carried 
on  from  this  cause  is  proportional  to  the  porosity  of  the  rock  and 
severity  of  the  frosts. 

Many  rocks  contain  compounds  which  are  capable  of  uniting  with 
oxygen  under  ordinary  conditions.  The  air  furnishes  this  oxygen, 
and  the  chemical  changes  produced  by  such  a combination  often 
result  in  fracturing  the  rock. 

The  grinding  power  of  moving  glaciers  has  also  played  an  im- 
portant part  in  the  formation  of  soils. 

It  naturally  follows  that  soils  will  resemble  in  composition  the 
rocks  from  which  they  are  derived.  The  disintegration  of  a sand- 


Bulletin  13. — Washington  Soils. 


7 


stone  and  a limestone  will  produce  soils  having  characteristics 
which  differ  as  much  as  do  the  rocks  themselves. 

Were  it  not  for  the  transportation  agencies  of  wind  and  water, 
soils  would  always  consist  of  the  decayed  underlying  rock,  enriched 
by  the  decomposition  products  of  the  vegetable  matter  which  they 
support.  But  because  of  the  ease  with  which  they  are  transported 
by  these  agencies,  it  frequently  happens  that  a fertile  soil  is  found 
in  regions  underlaid  by  rocks  which  by  their  decomposition  would 
yield  one  nearly  barren.  Equally  true  is  it  that  a barren  soil  is 
often  found  overlying  rocks  that  contain  all  the  elements  essential 
to  fertility.  Ordinarily,  however,  unless  there  is  clear  proof  to  the 
contrary,  we  may  assume  that  the  rocks  of  a given  locality  have 
furnished  the  material  for  the  soils  of  that  section.  This  being 
true,  it  becomes  evident  that  geology  and  agricultural  chemistry 
are  closely  allied.  A knowledge  of  the  geological  formations  of 
any  section  gives  at  once  a clue  concerning  the  general  character 
of  the  soil. 

The  term  “soil”  is  used  to  designate  that  mixture  of  mineral 
(earthy)  matter  and  decayed  vegetable  matter  in  which  plants 
grow,  and  from  which  they  derive  much  of  their  food.  Soils 
should  not  be  considered  as  indefinite  masses  of  dirt,  in  which 
plants  grow  through  the  agency  of  mysterious  forces.  Although 
it  is  true  that  they  possess  distinct  features  indicative  of  their 
origin,  it  is  equally  true  that  they  have  many  things  in  common. 

There  can  be  no  effect  without  an  adequate  cause.  Hence  when 
soils  present  to  us  different  degrees  of  fertility,  we  must  conclude 
that  these  variations  have  some  cause,  which  may  be  easily  traced 
to  inherent  qualities  which  they  possess.  All  soils  wherever  found 
have  certain  fixed  and  definite  properties;  and  it  has  been  satis- 
factorily proven  that  barrenness  and  fertility  depend  upon  the  ab- 
sence or  presence  in  them  of  those  forms  of  mineral  matter  that 
are  to  be  found  in  the  ashes  of  plants,  and  also  upon  the  degree  of 
availability  of  this  matter. 

Subsoil  in  distinction  to  surface  soil  is  that  portion  lying  directly 
under  the  latter.  In  many  cases  there  is  a clear  line  of  demarca- 
tion between  them,  the  subsoil  usually  being  lighter  in  color  be- 
cause containing  less  humus.  In  other  cases  it  is  impossible  to 
distinguish  any  marked  difference  for  a depth  of  many  feet.  This 
is  a characteristic  feature  of  the  glacial  drift  of  Clarke  county,  and 
the  soils  of  basaltic  origin  in  Eastern  Washington.  In  regions  of 


8 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


abundant  or  excessive  rainfall  the  differences  between  surface  soil 
and  subsoil  are  usually  very  important  and  striking,  but  in  dry  re- 
gions they  are  often  barely  perceptible. 

While  the  subsoil  has  an  important  function  in  the  economy  of 
plant  growth,  the  surface  soil  is  what  concerns  us  most.  As  al- 
ready stated,  it  consists  of  the  products  of  rock  decomposition  en- 
riched by  decayed  organic  matter.  When  a soil  is  heated  to  redness 
a portion  of  it  passes  away,  and  that  which  remains  generally  as- 
sumes a reddish  color.  This  remaining  portion  is  the  inorganic 
matter,  and  what  passes  away  is  the  organic  substance,  and  com- 
bined water. 

COMPOSITION  OF  SOILS. 

1.  Organic  Portion. 

This  organic  matter  is  very  complex,  consisting  of  decomposition 
products  intermediate  between  woody  fibre  and  the  gases  into  which 
vegetable  matter  is  finally  resolved  by  complete  decomposition.  Al- 
though all  fertile  soils  contain  some  organic  matter,  it  is  not  essen- 
tial to  fertility  that  any  given  proportion  of  it  should  be  present. 
It  is  found  to  vary  from  1^  per  cent,  to  50  per  cent.,  and  in  peaty 
soils,  as  high  as  70  per  cent.  It  seems  to  make  very  little  or  no 
difference  in  the  fertility  of  normal  soils,  whether  the  minimum  or 
maximum  amount  is  present.  A small  proportion  of  the  organic 
matter  is  in  the  form  of  “humus,”  which  is  a mixture  of  several 
of  the  intermediate  stages  of  decay.  This  humus,  to  which  the 
dark  color  of  many  soils  is  apparently  due,  is  a very  important 
constituent  of  soils,  inasmuch  as  it  furnishes  the  nitrogen  so  neces- 
sary for  growing  vegetation.  It  was  formerly  supposed  to  be  an 
absolutely  necessary  soil  factor.  We  now  know  that  this  is  not 
true,  but  yet  we  recognize  its  value  not  only  as  a source  of  nitrogen, 
but  also  for  its  influence  on  the  physical  conditions  of  soils.  It 
gives  them  an  increased  power  of  retaining  moisture,  makes  them 
more  responsive  to  solar  heat,  and  renders  them  more  easy  of 
tillage. 

2.  Inorganic  Portion. 

The  inorganic  or  mineral  portion  forms  in  ordinary  soils  by  far 
the  greater  part  of  their  bulk  and  weight.  This  portion  is  also 
complex,  and,  as  said  above,  consists  of  a mixture  of  substances  all 
of  which  are  found  in  the  ashes  of  plants.  There  are  eleven  or 
twelve  of  these  substances  found  in  all  soils,  whether  fertile  or 


Bulletin  13. — Washington  Soils. 


9 


barren.  Some  of  them  act  mechanically  only  by  giving  to  the  soil 
the  necessary  bulk,  porosity  and  water  holding  power.  Others  act 
more  directly  by  furnishing  materials  which  the  plant  requires. 
The  value  of  a soil  for  agricultural  purposes  depends  much  upon 
the  proportions  in  which  these  elements  are  present,  but  perhaps 
more  upon  the  form  in  which  they  occur.  A soil  may  contain  in 
abundance  all  the  elements  of  fertility,  and  still  be  barren.  This 
is  because  the  material  required  by  the  plant  must  be  in  solution 
before  it  can  be  assimilated,  and,  although  present  in  abundance,  it 
may  be  in  an  insoluble  form.  In  such  a case  an  application  of  fer- 
tilizers will  be  just  as  essential  to  productiveness,  as  in  case  of  a 
soil  wholly  destitute  of  mineral  plant  food. 

The  mineral  substances  that  are  present  in  varying  proportions 
in  all  soils  are  silica,  iron,  alumina,  lime,  magnesia,  soda,  potash, 
phosphoric  acid,  sulphuric  acid,  chlorin,  and  sometimes  manganese 
and  fluorine.  In  order  to  better  understand  the  following  analyti- 
cal results,  some  of  the  chief  characteristics  of  these  substances  are 
given  below. 

Silica  is  a compound  of  the  elements  silicon  and  oxygen.  It  not 
only  forms  the  basis  of  most  soils,  but  is  the  most  abundant  solid 
material  of  the  earth.  The  quartz  crystal  is  pure  silica.  Sand  and 
clay  are  largely  composed  of  it.  It  is  present  in  soils  in  greatly 
varying  proportions,  sandy  soils  having  from  10  to  90  per  cent., 
while  lime  soils  and  marl  contain  as  low  as  20  to  30  per  cent.  It 
occurs  mostly  in  an  insoluble  condition,  in  which  state  its  action  is 
merely  mechanical.  Most  fertile  soils  contain  some  of  it  in  a solu- 
ble form,  and  then  it  becomes  a source  of  plant  food. 

Iron,  in  the  form  of  finely  diffused  ferric  hydrate,  is  a constitu- 
ent of  all  soils.  Its  percentage  varies  from  1^  to  20  per  cent,  and 
often  gives  the  color  to  red  soils.  Yet  it  frequently  happens  that  a 
soil  distinctly  red  in  color  contains  less  iron  than  one  that  has  a much 
darker  color.  This  is  well  illustrated  by  samples  Nos.  5 and  19, 
given  in  the  following  pages.  No.  5 is  a dark  colored  soil,  while  No. 
19  is  a sample  of  the  characteristic  red  soil  of  Western  Washington; 
but  they  contain  equal  amounts  of  ferric  hydrate.  The  color  appar- 
ently depends  more  on  the  mode  of  distribution  than  on  the  quantity. 
As  a rule,  soils  rich  in  iron  are  poor  in  organic  matter,  although  their 
fertility  is  very  great.  The  beneficial  effects  of  iron  are  largely  me- 
chanical, increasing  the  power  of  the  soil  to  absorb  and  retain  heat 
and  moisture,  and  rendering  tillage  easier  in  clay  lands.  The  green 


10 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


color  of  plants  is  due  to  the  presence  of  iron  in  the  soil,  and  un- 
doubtedly other  of  its  beneficial  effects  are  due  to  chemical  causes; 
but  this  latter  point  is  as  yet  somewhat  obscure.  Soils  having  slight 
color  contain  from  1-^  to  4 per  cent.,  ordinary  loams  from  4 to  1 
percent..,  red  lands  from  V to  12  and  accasionally  as  high  as  20  per 
cent. 

Alumina  combined  with  silica  forms  pure  clay.  The  clays  in 
soils  have  usually  a reddish  color,  due  to  the  oxide  of  iron  they 
contain.  Alumina  does  not  directly  contribute  to  the  growth  of 
plants;  it  is  seldom  absorbed  by  their  roots  and  therefore  is  not 
direct  food  for  them.  In  the  form  of  clay,  however,  it  is  a most 
essential  constituent  of  the  soil.  Clay,  as  well  as  humus  and  ferric 
hydrate,  is  very  retentive  of  water,  and  has  the  power  of  absorbing 
and  retaining  the  easily  soluble  compounds  supplied  by  manure 
and  other  fertilizers.  This  property  of  clay  prevents  these  fertil- 
izing substances  from  being  washed  out  of  reach  of  the  roots  of 
plants  by  the  first  heavy  rain.  Clay  is  derived  mainly  from  the 
decomposition  of  rocks  containing  feldspar,  and  hence  is  frequently 
associated  with  a considerable  supply  of  potash.  The  alumina 
ranges  from  1 to  4 per  cent,  in  sandy  soils  to  6 to  10  per  cent,  in 
clay  soils. 

Lime.  In  regard  to  the  presence  of  lime  in  soils,  Prof.  Hilgard 
says:  “Other  things  being  equal,  the  thriftiness  of  a soil  is  measur- 
ably dependent  upon  a certain  minimum  percentage  of  lime.”  As 
the  results  of  a certain  definite  amount  of  lime  in  a soil,  the  follow- 
ing points  are  found  true: 

( 1 ) A more  rapid  transformation  of  vegetable  matter  into  humus. 

( 2 ) The  retention  of  humus  against  the  oxidizing  effects  of  hot 
climates. 

( 3 ) Whether  through  the  medium  of  this  humus,  or  in  a more 
direct  manner,  it  renders  adequate  for  profitable  culture  percentages 
of  phosphoric  acid  and  potash  so  small  that  in  case  of  a deficiency 
of  lime  or  its  absence  the  soil  would  be  practically  sterile. 

( 4 ) It  tends  to  secure  the  proper  maintenance  of  the  conditions 
of  nitrification,  whereby  the  inert  nitrogen  of  the  soil  is  rendered 
available. 

This  controlling  influence  of  lime  renders  its  determination  alone 
a matter  of  no  small  interest,  since  its  deficiency  can  very  generally 
be  cheaply  remedied.  Lime  is  among  the  most  variable  of  soil 
constituents,  existing  in  all  proportions  from  mere  traces  to  30  per 


Bulletin  13. — Washington  Soils. 


11 


cent,  in  limestone  soils.  It  is  usually  found  in  the  form  of  calcium 
carbonate  (limestone),  calcium  sulphate  (gypsum),  or  calcium  phos- 
phate. Gypsum  is  somewhat  soluble  in  pure  water,  and  the  car- 
bonate and  phosphate  are  soluble  in  rain  water  by  virtue  of  the 
carbonic  acid  it  contains.  Hence,  all  three  of  these  forms  are 
capable  of  furnishing  the  lime  so  necessary  for  vigorous  plant  de- 
velopment. It  is  of  unusual  importance  as  a soil  constituent,  inas- 
much as  it  is  not  only  a necessary  ingredient  of  plants,  but  it  exerts 
a peculiarly  beneficial  effect  on  the  physical  properties  of  the  soil. 

Magnesia.  This  substance  resembles  lime  in  many  of  its  prop- 
erties, and  is  generally  found  accompanying  it  in  rocks,  especially 
in  dolomite,  or  magnesian  limestone.  Epsom  salts  is  a compound 
of  magnesia  with  sulphuric  acid.  Magnesia  is  found  in  all  culti- 
vated soils,  and  seems  to  be  essential  to  the  healthy  development  of 
many  plants.  There  is  much  evidence  that  a supply  of  it  in  the 
soil  is  necessary  for  the  full  development  of  wheat,  barley,  oats  and 
similar  plants.  However,  it  seems  to  have  no  direct  action  on  the 
soil.  Although  it  is  an  important  ingredient  of  plant  ash,  yet,  un- 
accountable as  it  may  seem,  soils  derived  from  magnesian  limestones 
are  invariably  less  fertile  than  those  derived  from  pure  limestones. 

Potash.  Ashes  that  result  from  the  burning  of  wood  consist,  for 
the  most  part,  of  potash,  or,  more  correctly,  carbonate  of  potash. 
Ashes  in  general  are  simply  the  mineral  substances  required  by  the 
plant,  and  taken  from  the  soil  during  their  growth,  and  generally 
contain  from  10  to  15  per  cent,  of  potash.  As  already  indicated, 
potash  is  derived,  together  with  alumina,  from  the  decomposition 
of  rocks  containing  feldspar.  It  is  a most  important  element  of 
plant  food,  and  is  usually  present  in  soils  in  an  available  form,  in 
quantities  sufficient  for  many  years  of  productiveness. 

Soda  is  very  closely  allied  to  potash,  both  in  its  chemical  and 
physical  properties.  It  is,  however,  much  less  important  as  a soil 
ingredient,  and  is  present  usually  in  smaller  quantities.  When 
combined  with  chlorin  to  form  common  salt,  it  is  very  injurious, 
even  in  very  small  quantities. 

Phosphoric  acid  occurs  in  all  fertile  soils,  although  usually  in 
much  smaller  amounts  than  the  other  important  ingredients.  It 
never  occurs  free,  but  in  combination  with  either  iron,  alumina  or 
lime,  phosphate  of  lime  being  most  common.  Because  all  crops 
take  it  from  the  soil,  and  because  of  the  small  amount  present  in 
most  of  them,  decidedly  beneficial  effects  are  usually  produced  by 


12 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


adding  it  as  a fertilizer.  The  question  of  profit  resulting  from  its 
application  can  only  be  determined  by  trial. 

Sulphuric  acid  is  found  as  one  of  the  constituents  of  most  soils, 
although  present  in  minute  quantities.  It  is  usually  in  the  form  of 
calcium  sulphate,  or  gypsum. 

Chlorin  is  found  only  sparingly  in  soils,  and  is  usually  in  the 
form  of  common  salt. 

Value  of  a Chemical  Soil  Analysis. 

It  has  become  very  evident  from  correspondence  and  conversation 
with  parties  interested  in  the  relation  of  soils  to  agricultural  and 
horticultural  interests,  that  the  prevailing  idea  concerning  the  real 
value  and  meaning  of  a chemical  soil  analysis  is  far  from  being  the 
correct  one.  Therefore,  it  seems  best  at  this  point  to  outline,  as 
clearly  as  possible,  the  true  importance  to  be  attached  to  such  an 
analysis. 

Agriculture,  as  a science,  is  of  comparatively  recent  date.  As 
recently  as  1830  it  was  still  an  unsolved  problem  whether  or  not 
mineral  matter  was  necessary  to  the  life  of  the  plant.  Since  that 
time  the  ideas  concerning  the  relation  between  the  plant  and  the 
soil  in  which  it  grows  have  been  varied  and  conflicting,  always 
governed  and  modified  by  the  theories  of  the  time.  Real  scientific 
agriculture  only  dates  back  about  thirty-three  years,  when  Liebig 
first  discovered  the  true  philosophy  of  plant  nutrition.  His  dis- 
covery was  not  made  until  he  had  learned  by  bitter  experience  that 
theories,  however  plausible,  are  often  disproved  by  practical  tests. 
Liebig’s  examination  of  plants  from  many  portions  of  the  world 
was  very  productive  of  results.  He  found  that  all  plants  contained 
the  same  ash  constituents,  although  varying  in  proportion  for  dif- 
ferent plants.  From  this  he  argued  that  all  plants  take  from  the 
soil  certain  mineral  substances,  and  that  unless  these  forms  of  plant 
food  were  returned  to  the  soil,  fertility  would  be  seriously  im- 
paired by  continuous  cropping.  Upon  this  theory  the  manufacture 
of  artificial  fertilizers  was  founded.  Because  of  mistaken  concep- 
tions of  the  nature  of  plant  food,  fertilizers  were  at  first  prepared 
in  the  most  insoluble  form  possible;  and  hence,  when  applied  to 
the  soil,  did  not  yield  the  expected  beneficial  results.  It  was  not 
until  others  discovered  that  plant  food  must  be  soluble  in  order  to 
be  assimilated  that  artificial  fertilizers  became  of  value. 

When  it  first  became  known  that  the  ashes  of  plants,  and  soils, 


Bulletin  13. — Washington  Soils. 


13 


were  alike  in  their  composition,  it  was  at  once  assumed  that  there 
was  a direct  relation  between  them,  and  that  chemical  analysis 
would  reveal  that  relation.  It  was  supposed  that  if  a given  soil 
refused  to  produce  a profitable  crop,  an  examination  of  its  ash,  and 
of  the  soil,  would  show  what  the  latter  lacked  that  was  required  by 
the  former.  But  when  put  in  practice  it  was  soon  found  that 
analyses  frequently  showed  no  deficiency  in  the  elements  of  plant 
nutrition,  and  yet  the  plant  would  not  grow.  For  this  reason,  it 
was  then  as  well  as  now  a dangerous  matter  for  the  chemist  to 
state  dogmatically  that  a given  soil  must  be  productive  because  he 
has  found  it  to  contain  all  that  plants  require;  because  a practical 
test  may  prove  his  statements  to  be  false.  This  is  one  reason,  and 
perhaps  the  chief  one,  why  many  have  been  in  the  past,  and  some 
are  to-day,  skeptical  concerning  the  ability  of  chemical  science  to 
render  any  practical  assistance  to  agriculture. 

When  it  was  also  discovered  that  the  differences  between  a new, 
fertile,  uncultivated  soil,  and  one  that  has  been  worn  out  by  long 
continued  culture,  are  so  slight  that  even  the  delicate  balance  of  the 
chemist  can  barely  appreciate  them,  doubts  began  to  arise  in  the 
minds  of  chemists  themselves  as  to  the  usefulness  of  chemical  soil 
analyses.  In  their  opinions  on  this  point,  chemists  disagree  very 
widely. 

The  weak  point  of  an  analysis  is  the  fact  that,  while  it  reveals 
what  the  soil  contains,  and  in  what  proportions  the  different  con- 
stituents are  present,  it  does  not  show  how  much  of  the  plant  food 
present  is  in  a form  suitable  for  assimilation  by  the  plant.  Other 
things  being  equal,  the  productiveness  of  any  soil  should  be  propor- 
tional to  the  amounts  of  available  plant  food  which  it  contains. 
When  it  becomes  possible  to  show  by  an  analysis  how  much  of  the 
plant  food  present  is  capable  of  being  absorbed  by  the  roots,  then 
soil  analysis  will  have  reached' a point  where  its  practical  utility 
cannot  be  questioned. 

A very  large  portion  of  the  future  farming  land  of  our  state  is 
as  yet  uncultivated,  virgin  soil.  A chemical  soil  analysis  will  al- 
ways show  whether  or  not  there  is  a deficiency  of  any  of  the  ele- 
ments of  plant  food.  It  is  pretty  generally  agreed  that  an  in- 
vestigation of  virgin  soils  is  a fruitful  field  of  work.  We  know 
that  plants  differ  in  their  requirements  upon  the  mineral  food  of 
the  soil.  Hence  it  is  possible  for  the  chemist  to  determine  in  his 
laboratory  what  the  farmer  can  only  determine  by  the  costly  experi- 


14 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


ment  of  crop  failures.  While  the  analysis  can  not  demonstrate 
with  certainty  that  the  soil  of  any  given  locality  is  unfitted  for  the 
successful  production  of  any  given  crop,  yet  it  may  indicate  a rea- 
sonable probability  of  success  or  failure..  Many  important  points 
concerning  the  needs  of  soils  that  have  long  been  under  cultivation 
might  be  revealed  by  analyses,  although  it  must  be  admitted  that 
the  results  are  less  satisfactory  than  in  the  case  of  virgin  soils. 

The  chemical  constitution  of  soils,  as  important  as  it  is,  is  not 
the  only  determining  factor  of  fertility.  Equally,  or  perhaps  even 
more  important,  are  its  physical  characteristics.  The  availability 
of  plant  food  is  probably  largely  conditioned  by  the  size  of  the 
grains.  Hence  the  determination  of  the  dimensions  of  the  soil 
particles  is  important.  It  is  now  also  generally  accepted  as  true, 
that  the  water  holding  power  of  soil,  its  permeability  to  air  and 
water,  and  all  of  its  relations  to  moisture,  have  much  to  do  with 
fertility  or  barrenness. 

We  have  taken  up  this  work  on  Washington  soils  — 

( 1 ) Because  we  believe  that  the  chemical,  supplemented  by  the 
physical  analysis,  can  furnish  us  with  valuable  results  in  case  of 
our  virgin  soils;  results  which,  when  taken  in  connection  with  a 
knowledge  of  their  geological  history,  will  at  least  enable  us  to  pre- 
dict relative  to  their  durability. 

( 2 ) Because,  in  the  case  of  cultivated  soils,  the  experiences  and 
results  of  cultivation,  together  with  the  analysis,  may  furnish  us 
data  that  will  be  valuable  in  their  future  cultivation  and  fertiliza- 
tion. 

( 3 ) Because  a more  definite  knowledge  of  our  soils,  their  compo- 
sition and  needs,  is  exceedingly  valuable  to  the  horticultural  as  well 
as  the  agricultural  interests  of  the  state. 

The  information  desired  by  the  intending  settler  or  land  pur- 
chaser will  usually  include  the  following  points: 

( 1 ) Is  the  land  in  question  capable  of  yielding  profitable  crops 
without  fertilization  or  other  expensive  improvements;  and,  if  so, 

( 2 ) How  long  is  it  likely  to  hold  out  under  ordinary  (exhaustive) 
culture  before  it  will  require  fertilization? 

(3)  When  it  does  “give  out,”  or  seriously  slackens  its  produc- 
tion, what  fertilizer  will  it  require  first? 

(4)  To  what  crop  is  the  land,  from  its  (physical  and  chemical) 
nature,  best  adapted? 

A chemical  investigation,  carried  out  in  the  manner  indicated, 


Bulletin  13. — Washington  Soils. 


15 


would  certainly  give  us  much  clearer  notions  of  the  relative  pro- 
ductiveness of  different  soils  than  any  mere  summing  up  of  soil  con- 
stituents ever  can.  It  would  throw  much  light  on  the  above  points 
of  information  desired  by  the  intending  settler,  and  such  questions 
as  the  following  would  receive  definite  answers: 

( 1 ) Whether  or  not  barrenness  is  caused  by  the  presence  of  in- 
jurious substances,  such  as  sulphate  or  sulphide  of  iron? 

( 2 ) Whether  barrenness  is  due  to  the  presence  of  common  salt, 
nitrates,  or  other  soluble  compounds  which  are  useful  to  vegeta- 
tion in  a highly  diluted  state,  but  are  injurious  when  too  abundant. 

( 3 ) Whether  barrenness  is  caused  by  a deficiency  of  any  impor- 
tant element  of  plant  food. 

(4)  Whether  or  not  land  will  be  improved  by  liming. 

( 5 ) What  artificial  fertilizers  are  best  adapted  to  soils  of  various 
compositions. 

Interpretation  of  Results. 

To  insure  the  highest  degree  of  fertility  under  suitable  climatic 
conditions,  it  is  necessary  that  a soil  should  not  only  contain  suffi- 
cient available  mineral  food  for  the  plant,  but  it  should  be  loose 
enough  and  porous  enough  to  admit  of  easy  tillage,  and  to  allow 
the  air  to  have  free  access  to  the  plant  roots.  This  will  be  the 
case  if  sufficient  sand  be  present,  or  in  case  of  a very  clayey  soil,  if 
the  humus  or  lime  be  present  in  sufficient  quantity  to  cause  the  clay 
particles  to  aggregate.  On  the  other  hand,  the  soil  should  be  com- 
pact enough  to  be  able  to  resist  drouth.  An  experienced  farmer 
may  be  able  to  determine  by  the  eye  whether  a soil  possesses  these 
requisites  of  porosity  and  compactness.  In  the  laboratory  the  same 
points  are  determined  by  the  mechanical  analysis.  As  said  above, 
the  chemical  analysis  shows  how  much  plant  food  is  present,  but 
does  not  show  the  form  in  which  it  occurs. 

Having  obtained  the  percentage  composition  of  any  given  soil, 
the  next  thing  is  to  interpret  it,  “for  a mere  column  of  figures  op- 
posite another  column  of  unintelligible  names  does  not  convey 
much  meaning  to  the  farmer.”  Are  the  various  'percentages  repre- 
sented higher  or  lower  than  necessary ? The  answer  to  this  ques- 
tion can  only  be  given  tentatively,  inasmuch  as  so  many  conditions 
may  influence  fertility.  We  may  assert  positively,  however,  that 
if  a soil  shows  by  analysis  a high  percentage  of  plant  food,  it  will 
also  show  high  productiveness,  provided  the  physical  conditions 


16 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


favor  the  growth  of  the  plant.  On  the  other  hand,  low  percent- 
ages of  plant  food  do  not  necessarily  mean  low  productiveness. 

Among  all  the  constituents  of  soils,  there  are  only  three  that  are 
of  ‘‘critical”  importance  to  the  plant.  That  is,  “of  the  different 
inorganic  or  mineral  elements  which  enter  into  the  composition  of 
plants,  only  three  are  required  to  increase  and  maintain  the  fertility 
of  the  soil.  These  are  phosphoric  acid,  potash  and  lime.”  The 
agriculturist  need  not  concern  himself  about  the  others. 

It  must  not  be  thought,  however,  that  the  latter  have  no  effect 
on  plants.  They  are  no  less  necessary  than  these  three;  and  if 
they  can  be  dispensed  with  in  artificial  fertilizers,  it  is  only  because 
the  poorest  soils  are  already  sufficiently  provided  with  them. 

Assuming,  then,  that  soils  contain  in  superabundance  all  of  the 
elements  except  the  three  above  mentioned,  we  need  pay  little  at- 
tention to  the  percentages  of  any  save  these  three. 

Prof.  Hilgard  says: 

“The  lime  percentage  should  not  fall  below  0.1  per  cent,  in  the  light- 
est sandy  soils;  in  clay  loams  not  below  0.25  per  cent.,  and  in  heavy  clay 
soils  not  below  0.5  per  cent.;  and  it  may  advantageously  rise  to  1 and 
even  2 per  cent,  as  a maximum.  Beyond  the  latter  figure  it  seems  in  no 
case  to  act  more  favorably  than  a less  amount,  unless  it  be  mechanically. 

“The  percentage  of  phosphoric  acid  is  that  which,  in  connection  with 
the  lime,  seems  to  govern  most  commonly  the  productiveness  of  our  vir- 
gin soils.  In  any  of  these,  less  than  0.05  must  be  regarded  as  a serious 
deficiency,  unless  accompanied  by  a large  amount  of  lime.  In  sandy 
loams,  0.1  per  cent.,  when  accompanied  by  a fair  supply  of  lime,  secures 
fair  productiveness  for  from  eight  to  fifteen  years;  with  a deficiency  of 
lime,  twice  that  percentage  would  only  serve  for  a similar  time. 

“The  potash  percentages  of  soils  seem,  in  a large  number  of  cases,  to 
vary  with  that  of  ‘clay;’  that  is,  in  clay  soils  they  are  usually  high,  in 
sandy  soils  low;  and  since  subsoils  are  in  all  ordinary  cases  more  clayey 
than  surface  soils,  their  potash  percentages  are  almost  invariably  higher. 

“The  potash  percentage  of  heavy  clay  upland  soil,  and  clay  loams, 
ranges  from  about  0.8  to  0.5  per  cent.;  lighter  loams  from  0.45  to  0.30  per 
cent.;  sandy  loams  below  0.3  per  cent,  and  sandy  soils  of  great  depth  may 
fall  below  0.1  per  cent,  consistently  with  good  productiveness  and  dura- 
bility. Virgin  soils  falling  below  0.6  per  cent,  in  potash  seem  in  most 
cases  to  be  deficient  in  available  potash,  its  application  to  such  soils  being 
followed  by  an  immediate  great  increase  of  production.  Sometimes, 
however,  a soil  very  rich  in  lime  and  phosphoric  acid,  shows  good  pro- 
ductiveness, despite  a very  low  potash  percentage,  and  conversely,  a 
high  potash  percentage  seems  capable  of  offsetting  a low  one  of  lime.” 

These  pages  concerning  the  interpretation  of  results  should  be 
carefidly  studied  in  connection  with  the  analytical  tables. 


Bulletin  13. — Washington  Soils. 


17 


The  following  analyses  were  made  by  the  method  recommended 
by  the  Association  of  Official  Agricultural  Chemists,  with  some 
slight  and  unimportant  modifications.  They  represent  in  all  cases 
the  analyses  of  “fine  earth”  which  would  pass  through  a sieve 
containing  holes  one-half  millimeter  in  diameter. 

The  nitrogen  was  determined  by  the  Kyehldahl  method,  and 
humus  by  the  method  of  Grandeau. 


Soil  No.  5.  Per  cent. 

Insoluble  residue 76.4944 


Insoluble  silica . 62.8314 

Combined  silica 13.6630 

Soluble  silica .3010 

Potash  (K20)..... 6351 

Soda  (Na,20) .3739 

Lime  (CaO) 1.0814 

Magnesia  (MgO) .7277 

Peroxid  of  iron  (Fe203) 4.5539 

Alumina  (A1203) 7.5263 

Phosphoric  acid  (P2Os) .1423 

Sulphuric  acid  (S03) trace. 

Chlorin .0204 

Water  at  120°  C 4.5234 

Volatile  and  organic  matter 3.6124 


Total 99.9922 


Humus .9950 

Nitrogen .1096 


Sample  No.  5 was  taken  from  the  College  farm.  It  is  the  char- 
acteristic heavy,  dark  soil  of  the  Palouse  country,  containing  prac- 
tically no  sand,  and  is  what  is  ordinarily  termed  a clay  loam.  The 
sample  was  taken  from  an  uncultivated,  unfertilized  spot,  where 
the  soil  is  about  two  feet  deep,  with  a clay  subsoil. 

The  high  content  of  lime,  phosphoric  acid  and  potash  shown  by 
the  analysis  explains  why  soils  of  this  type  have  not  apparently  de- 
creased in  fertility  after  having  been  cropped  with  wheat  for  fifteen 
or  more  successive  years.  The  amount  of  nitrogen  present  is  sat- 
isfactory, though  not  large.  It  is  probable  that  nitrogenous  fertil- 
izers will  be  first  required  in  order  to  maintain  the  fertility  of  this 
type  of  soils.  While  it  has  not  apparently  suffered  from  continued 
cropping  without  any  restoration  of  the  elements  of  food  used  by 
the  plant,  yet  it  is  reasonably  certain  that  its  fertility  would  be 
largely  increased  by  a judicious  application  of  manure. 


Soil  No.  11.  Per  cent. 

Insoluble  residue 78.7114 

Insoluble  silica 65.7684 

Combined  silica 12.9430 


18 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


Soluble  silica .0156 

Potash  (K20) 3315 

Soda  (Na2Oj * 5687 

Lime  (CaO) 1.5125 

Magnesia  (MgO) 1.5274 

Peroxid  of  iron  (Fe203)... '. 4.6101 

Alumina  (A1203) 5.9300 

Phosphoric  acid  (P2Os) „ .1823 

Sulphuric  acid  ( S03) trace. 

Chlorin . 0152 

W ater  at  120°  C 2 . 7313 

Volatile  and  organic  matter 3.7452 


Total 99.8812 


Humus .6100 

Nitrogen .1409 


Sample  No.  11  was  taken  from  the  orchard  of  J.  B.  Holt,  at  Wa- 
waiwai,  Whitman  county,  about  two  hundred  yards  from  Snake 
river.  It  consists  very  largely  of  sand  intermingled  with  consider- 
able fine  mica.  From  its  physical  appearance,  one  would  hardly 
suspect  it  capable  of  sustaining  much  plant  life.  However,  it  would 
be  difficult  to  find  a more  vigorous  or  better  bearing  orchard  than 
the  one  growing  in  this  sandy  soil.  Everything  seems  to  indicate 
that  the  soil  has  been  formed  by  “wash”  from  the  river.  The 
high  percentage  of  lime  is  doubtless  due  to  the  presence  of  shells 
that  have  been  reduced  to  a finely  divided  state.  It  also  seems 
probable  that  the  presence  of  so  much  phosphoric  acid  may  be  due 
to  other  forms  of  river  waste.  In  a different  type  of  soil,  the  com- 
paratively high  percentage  of  soda  might  indicate  a tendency  toward 
alkalinity  — but  here  it  has  no  special  significance. 

Soil  No.  16. 

Per  cent. 


Insoluble  residue 77.7110 


Insoluble  silica 60.6690 

Combined  silica ... 17.0420 

Soluble  silica .4650 

Potash  (KaO) 5308 

Soda  ( Na20) 3236 

Lime  (CaO) * 1.1800 

Magnesia  ( MgO ) .7339 

Peroxid  of  iron  ( Fe203) 4.2705 

Alumina  (A120  3) 6.3703 

Phosphoric  acid  (P2Os) .1392 

Sulphuric  acid  ( S03) trace. 

Chlorin ... .0048 

W ater  at  120°  C 2 . 6341 

Volatile  and  organic  matter 5.5002 


Total 99 . 8634 


Humus 1.2211 

Nitrogen , • H20 


Bulletin  13. — Washington  Soils. 


19 


Sample  No.  16  was  also  taken  from  the  farm  of  J.  B.  Holt,  at 
Wawaiwai,  Whitman  county,  from  cultivated  land  lying  near  the 
foot  of  the  hills  which  rise  abruptly  from  Snake  river.  The  soil  is 
made  up  of  both  river  wash  and  hill  wash,  and  is  very  productive. 
It  is  a light  colored  soil,  easily  worked,  and  composed  very  largely 
of  fine  earth.  It  differs  from  No.  11  in  containing  only  a small 
amount  of  true  sand  and  very  little  mica.  The  amount  of  lime  is 
less  than  in  No.  11,  but  is  still  notably  large.  It  is  also  noticeable 
that  the  percentages  of  potash  and  soda  are  reversed  — the  ratio 
between  them  being  practically  the  same  — but  No.  11  contains 
more  soda,  and  No.  16  more  potash.  Because  of  the  large  amounts 
of  lime,  potash  and  phosphoric  acid,  this  soil  should  theoretically 
be  productive  for  a long  period.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the 
combined  percentages  of  iron  and  alumina  are  the  same  in  both 
samples;  also,  that  the  sulphuric  acid  is  present  in  both  in  mere 
traces  only. 

Soil  No.  17. 

Per  cent. 

Insoluble  residue '. 78.4340 


Insoluble  silica 

Combined  silica 

Soluble  silica 

Potash  (KaO) 

Soda  (Na20) 

Lime  (CaO) 

Magnesia  (MgO) 

Peroxid  of  iron  (Fe203) 

Alumina  (A1203) 

Phosphoric  acid  (P206) 

Sulphuric  acid  (S03) 

Chlorin 

Water  at  120°  C 

Volatile  and  organic  matter. 


60.2070 

18.2270 

.2100 

.4328 

.3739 

1.2127 

.7880 

5.1586 

6.8906 

.1007 

trace. 

.0058 

3.4527 

3.0195 


Total. 


100.0793 


Humus .2550 

Nitrogen . 0876 


Sample  No.  17  was  sent  from  North  Yakima,  Yakima  county,  by 
Alfred  M.  Miller,  having  been  taken  from  the  southwest  quarter, 
section  12,  township  14  north,  range  18  east.  It  is  locally  termed 
the  “bench”  or  “sage  brush”  soil.  Being  in  the  area  of  limited 
rainfall,  irrigation  is  necessary  to  produce  successfully  anything 
but  grease  wood  and  sage  brush.  Sample  was  taken  from  surface 
to  a depth  of  eighteen  inches  from  uncultivated  land.  It  is  a light 
sandy  loam. 

In  this  irrigated  district  no  difficulty  is  experienced  in  raising 
excellent  crops  of  cereals,  fruit,  alfalfa,  hops,  etc.,  wherever  water 


20 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


is  available.  This  fact  having  been  determined  by  practical  experi- 
ence, it  is  no  surprise  to  learn  from  a chemical  analysis  that  the 
soil,  so  unpromising  in  appearance,  contains  such  abundant  stores  of 
the  elements  of  plant  nutrition.  It  is  probable  that  when  partial 
exhaustion  occurs  a potash  and  nitrogen  fertilizer  will  be  first  re- 
quired for  its  restoration  to  fertility. 


Soil  No.  19. 


Insoluble  residue 

Insoluble  silica 

Combined  silica 

Soluble  silica 

Potash  (K20) 

Soda  (NazO) 

Lime  ( CaO) 

Magnesia  (MgO) 

Peroxid  of  iron  (Fe203) 

Alumina  (A1203) 

Phosphoric  acid  (P205) 

Sulphuric  acid  (S03) 

Chlorin 

Water  at  120°  C 

Volatile  and  organic  matter. 


Per  cent. 
80.6100 

70.9610 

9.6490 

.4200 


.2785 

.6550 

trace. 

4.5351 

7.1591 

.0384 

trace. 

.0029 

1.7773 

4.5651 


Total 100.2436 

Humus 1.8960 

Nitrogin .1023- 

Sample  No.  19  has  a marked  reddish  color;  contains  considerable 
fine  sand,  but  no  gravel.  It  was  sent  from  Anacortes,  Skagit 
county,  by  Graham  Bros.,  and  was  accompanied  by  the  following 
description:  “This  red  soil  is  the  characteristic  soil  of  Western 
Washington,  and  is  supposed  to  be  glacial  drift.  The  soil  where 
the  sample  was  taken  from  has  never  been  cultivated  or  manured. 
It  is  supposed  to  be  a good  fruit  soil.  The  subsoil  is  hardpan,  very 
hard  to  dig,  but  when  exposed  to  the  air  it  crumbles  and  becomes 
very  mellow.  There  are  large  quantities  of  mica  in  it.” 

This  soil  is  notably  deficient  in  potash  and  phosphoric  acid,  and 
an  increase  in  the  lime  percentage  would  probably  result  benefici- 
ally to  the  soil.  Practical  experience  may  already  have  proven  its 
adaptability  to  fruit  culture;  but  from  a theoretical  standpoint,  we 
should  not  consider  it  well  suited  for  that  purpose,  inasmuch  as 
fruit  is  supposed  to  require  for  its  highest  development  consider- 
able quantities  of  lime,  potash  and  phosphoric  acid.  It  seems 
probable  that  an  application  of  fertilizers  containing  all  three  of 
these  ingredients  would  greatly  strengthen  the  soil,  either  for  raising 
fruits,  vegetables  or  cereals. 


Bulletin  13. — Washington  Soils. 


21 


Soil  No.  20. 

Per  cent. 

Insoluble  residue 75.8550 


Insoluble  silica 66.6680 

Combined  silica 9.1870 

Soluble  silica .0330 

Potash  (K20) 0077 

Soda  (Na„0) 2865 

Lime  (CaO) 7690 

Magnesia  ( MgO ) . 4261 

Peroxid  of  iron  (Fe203) 3.5870 

Alumina  (A1203) 1 6.4646 

Phosphoric  acid  (P20  5 ) .0544 

Sulphuric  acid  (SO 3 ) .0384 

Chlorin .0066 

Water  at  120°  C 3.1200 

Volatile  and  organic  matter 9.1600 


Total . 99.8083 


Humus 2.0010 

Nitrogen .2345 

Sample  No.  20  is  a grayish  colored  soil,  containing  considerable 
sand  and  some  coarse  gravel.  It  was  also  sent  by  Graham  Bros., 
of  Anacortes,  Skagit  county,  with  the  following  description:  “This 


is  what  is  known  as  ‘alder  bottom  land.’  It  has  been  cultivated 
and  planted  in  orchard  for  six  years.  Land  originally  covered  with 
cedar,  alder  and  maple  timber,  and  salmonberry  bushes.  No  ma- 
nure has  been  used.  Average  depth  of  soil,  fifteen  inches.”  Same 
subsoil  as  No.  19. 

The  analysis  shows,  in  this  soil,  a grave  deficiency  in  potash. 
The  potash  percentage  is  naturally  low,  and  in  case  of  this  sample 
the  supply  has  been  exhausted  by  growing  nursery  stock  for  five 
years.  The  phosphoric  acid  is  low,  but  yet  sufficient  with  the 
amount  of  lime  present  to  produce  high  fertility.  While  the  supply 
of  potash  is  supposed  to  be  of  vital  importance,  yet  there  are  cases 
on  record  where  it  was  present  in  very  small  amounts  in  a soil  that 
produced  good  fruit.  It  is  very  evident  that  field  crops  would  fare 
poorly  upon  it  in  a very  few  years  without  the  addition  of  potash 
and  phosphatic  fertilizers.  An  application  of  potash  now  would, 
doubtless,  increase  the  profits  derived  from  fruit  grown  upon  it. 
Its  nitrogen  content  is  good. 


Soil  No.  21.  Per  cent. 

Insoluble  residue 28.3520 


Insoluble  silica 21.6490 

Combined  silica 6.7030 

Soluble  silica .1808 

Potash  (K20) 1366 


22 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


Soda  (Na20) 1910 

Lime  (CaO) . 3790 

Magnesia  (MgO) 0361 

Peroxid  of  Iron  (Fe2Oa) t.. 1.0550 

Alumina  (A1203) 4.3012 

Phosphoric  acid  ( P2Os  ) .3135 

Sulphuric  acid  (S03) .0934 

Chlorin .0183 

Water  at  120  ° C 11 . 7600 

V olatile  and  organic  matter 52 . 8739 


Total 99.6908 

Humus . 6.9154 

Nitrogen 1.3466 


Sample  No.  21  is  a marsh  soil,  also  sent  by  Graham  Bros.,  from 
Anacortes,  Skagit  county.  It  has  been  drained  one  year,  but  never 
cultivated.  It  has  an  average  depth  of  four  feet,  and  is  underlaid 
by  a stratum  of  clay  two  feet  thick,  which  rests  upon  the  hardpan 
that  underlies  Nos.  19  and  20. 

This  sample  contains  large  amounts  of  moisture  and  organic  mat- 
ter, which  are  characteristic  of  marshy  soils.  Soils  of  this  type 
are  especially  adapted  to  raising  celery,  cranberries,  peppermint,  etc. 
The  composition  of  this  sample  does  not  differ  materially  from  the 
Michigan  “ celery  soils,”  although  somewhat  lower  in  lime,  potash 
and  phosphoric  acid.  It  has  been  commonly  supposed  that  oxide 
of  iron  is  an  injurious  ingredient  in  celery  soils.  If  this  be  true, 
this  muck  should  be  well  adapted  to  celery  growing,  because  of  the 
unusually  small  amount  of  oxide  of  iron  it  contains.  The  percent- 
age of  nitrogen,  although  large,  is  yet  smaller  than  in  the  Michigan 
celery  soils. 

Soil  No.  22. 

Per  cent. 

Insoluble  residue 82.9840 


Insoluble  silica 

Combined  silica 

Soluble  silica 

Potash  (K20)... 

Soda  (Na20) 

Lime  (CaO) 

Magnesia  (MgO) 

Peroxid  of  iron  (Fe203) 

Alumina  (A1203) 

Phosphoric  acid  (P2Os) 

Sulphuric  acid  (S03) 

Chlorin ... 

Water  at  120°  C 

Volatile  and  organic  matter. 


69.4010 

13.5830 

.0577 

.1120 

.4165 

1.1128 

.0317 

4.1633 

6.1328 

.0799 

.0109 


2.1667 

3.0933 


Total. 


100.3715 


Humus .0593 

Nitrogen .0107 


Bulletin  13. — Washington  Soils. 


23 


Sample  No.  22  is  the  clay  underlying  No.  21.  It  was  asked  con- 
cerning this  clay,  4 ‘Does  it  contain  any  fertilizing  properties  that 
would  be  beneficial  to  the  other  soil?” 

It  is  not  probable  that  this  clay  could  be  used  to  advantage  or 
profit  in  supplying  deficiencies  in  plant  food  that  exist  in  Nos. 
19,  20  and  21. 

Soil  No.  25. 

Per  cent. 


Insoluble  residue , 79 . 0610 


Insoluble  silica 68.4150 

Combined  silica 10.6460 

Soluble  silica .9850 

Potash  (K20) 5908 

Soda  (Na20) 0584 

Lime(CaO) .3625 

Magnesia  (MgO) .2810 

Peroxid  of  iron  (Fe20  3) 6.4625 

Alumina  (AlzO 3 ) 7.2316 

Phosphoric  acid  (P206) .3535 

Sulphuric  acid  (SO 3 ) trace. 

Chlorin .0179 

Water  at  120°  C 1 . 8534 

Volatile  and  organic  matter 2.7341 


Total 99.9917 


Humus .3551 

Nitrogen .1780 


Sample  No.  25  was  sent  from  Vancouver,  Clarke  county,  by  Nat. 
M.  Norelius.  It  was  taken  from  the  upward  slope,  about  two 
miles  from  the  Columbia  river,  to  a depth  of  18  inches.  It  is  a red 
soil,  very  similar  in  appearance  to  No.  19  from  Skagit  county.  Mr. 
Norelius  writes: 

“All  fruits  seem  to  do  well  in  this  soil  and  climate.  The  staple  fruit 
raised  is  the  prune,  although  apples,  pears,  peaches  and  cherries  do  re- 
markably well.  Among  the  small  fruits,  strawberries  and  blackberries 
do  well.  The  idea  is  very  prevalent  here  that  manuring  is  necessary  in 
order  to  get  the  best  results  in  raising  fruit,  especially  prunes.  As  barn 
yard  manure  is  getting  to  be  a scarce  article,  commercial  fertilizers  will 
sooner  or  later  become  a necessity.  Therefore,  if,  through  the  efforts  of 
your  station,  some  light  be  thrown  in  regard  to  what  elements  of  plant 
food  are  most  deficient  in  our  soil,  it  will  be  a public  good.  The  land 
from  which  this  sample  was  taken  was  originally  covered  with  fir,  dog- 
wood, maple,  hazel,  willow,  etc.” 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  two  soils  resembling  each  other  as 
closely  as  Nos.  19  and  25  differ  very  materially  in  their  chemical 
composition.  No.  19  is  very  poor  in  phosphoric  acid,  while  No.  25 
contains  an  unusually  large  supply;  No.  19  contains  less  than  half 
as  much  potash  as  No.  25,  but  nearly  twice  as  much  lime.  From 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


24 


the  generally  accepted  views  concerning  the  relations  of  lime  and 
phosphoric  acid  in  the  economy  of  plarlt  nutrition,  we  might  sup- 
pose that  these  two  soils  would  be  equally  productive  and  perhaps 
equally  durable.  There  are  many  reasons  for  believing  that  a large 
amount  of  lime  in  a soil  renders  available  for  plant  assimilation, 
very  small  amount  of  phosphoric  acid,  thus  making  sufficient  for 
the  demands  a supply  which,  in  the  absence  of  lime,  would  be  far 
inadequate.  Hence,  it  is  likely  that  only  a limited  amount  of  the 
large  phosphoric  acid  percentage  in  No.  25  can  be  used  by  the 
plant,  because  of  the  unusually  low  content  of  lime.  An  addition 
of  land  plaster  to  such  a soil  would  undoubtedly  increase  both  the 
productiveness  and  longevity. 

This  soil  varies  from  four  to  sixteen  feet  deep,  resting  on  gravel. 
It  has  very  superior  drainage  and  its  great  adaptability  to  the  cul- 
ture of  Italian  prunes  is  probably  due  as  much  to  the  drainage  and 
climatic  conditions  as  to  the  food  elements  it  contains.  Clarke 
county  is  the  prune  county  of  the  state,  and  a greater  part  of  the 
crop  is  raised  within  a few  miles  of  Vancouver. 

Soil  No.  26. 


j Per  cent. 

Insoluble  residue 77.1730 


Insoluble  silica 64.8150 

Combined  silica 12.3580 

Soluble  silica .0880 

Potash  (K20) 2338 

Soda  (NazO) 4404 

Lime  (CaO) . 3978 

Magnesia  (MgO) .0316 

Peroxid  of  iron  (Fe203) . 8.3194 

Alumina  (A120  3) 7.3245 

Phosphoric  acid  (P2Os) .1983 

Sulphuric  Acid  (S03) , '...  .0110 

Chlorin .0033 

Water  at  120°  C . 2 . 2933 

Volatile  and  organic  matter 3.3467 


Total 99.8611 


Humus 2139 

Nitrogen ! .0558 


Sample  No.  26  is  the  same  as  No.  25,  taken  from  between  eighteen 
and  twenty-four  inches  deep.  There  is  very  little  change  in  the 
appearance  of  this  soil  throughout  its  entire  depth. 

The  analysis,  shows  with  increasing  depth,  a slight  increase  in 
lime  percentage,  but  a tremendous  decrease  in  the  amounts  of  pot- 
ash and  phosphoric  acid.  The  most  marked  feature  of  difference 
is  in  the  relative  amounts  of  soda  in  the  two  samples. 


Bulletin  13. — Washington  Soils. 


25 


Soil  No.  27. 

Insoluble  residue ... 

Insoluble  silica 

Combined  silica 

Soluble  silica 

Potash  (K20) : 

Soda  (Na20) 

Lime  (CaO) 

Magnesia  (MgO) m. 

Peroxid  of  iron  (Fe203) 

Alumina  (A1203) 

Phosphoric  acid  (P205) 

Sulphuric  acid  (S03 ) 

Chlorin 

Water  at  120°  C 

Volatile  and  organic  matter 

Total 


Per  cent. 
60.4910 

45.4490 
15.0420 
.0253 
.0154 
.4643 
.1090 
| .0226 
6.0888 
9.4315 
.1407 
.0079 
.0149 
12.8533 
10.4267 

100.0914 


Humus 4227 

Nitrogen .2321 


Sample  No.  27  was  sent  from  Willapa,  Pacific  county,  by  Thomas 
Dixon,  jr. , and  was  taken  about  two  miles  west  of  Willapa.  Mr. 
Dixon  writes:  “This  is  bottom  land,  alluvial  soil,  four  feet  deep, 
clay  subsoil  resting  on  soapstone.  Will  hops,  prunes  and  plums 
flourish  thereon?  The  climate  is  favorable.  This  soil  yields  pota- 
toes at  200  to  300  bushels  per  acre.  Timothy  four  to  five  tons  per 
acre.  One  acre  in  hay  and  one  in  pasture  is  more  than  required  by 
one  cow.  Carrots  take  the  soil  by  riot,  and  cabbages  are  perfectly 
at  home.” 

While  the  testimony  in  the  above  letter  shows  the  soil  to  be  very 
productive  for  some  things,  the  analysis  reveals  that  its  productivity 
cannot  probably  last  very  long  because  of  the  very  low  percentages 
of  lime  and  potash.  The  supply  of  phosphoric  acid  is  satisfactory, 
but  it  is  doubtful  if  much  of  it  is  in  an  available  form  for  use  of 
the  plant,  because  of  the  very  low  lime  content,  and  large  amounts 
of  iron  and  alumina.  Some  of  the  bottom  lands  in  the  Willapa 
valley,  that  have  been  in  cultivation  for  from  ten  to  twenty  years, 
show  very  marked  indications  of  a decline  in  productiveness.  An 
addition  of  lime  to  this  soil  would  be  of  great  value  in  maintaining 
its  fertility.  The  increase  of  lime  would  tend  to  render  more  of 
the  phosphoric  acid  available,  and,  in  that  event,  the  supply  of  pot- 
ash would  probably  be  sufficient  for  some  time  to  come. 

This  soil  would  not  be  very  well  adapted  to  fruit  culture,  espe- 
cially of  prunes  and  plums,  because  of  the  clay  subsoil,  indicating 
rather  poor  drainage,  and  because  of  its  low  percentage  of  lime. 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


26 


Apples  would  probably  thrive  for  a time,  but  would  soon  require 
the  soil  to  be  enriched  with  potash. 

The  soil  from  which  this  sample  was  taken  has  grown  two  good 


crops  of  timothy. 

Soil  No.  28.  Per  cent. 

Insoluble  residue 64.0540 


Insoluble  silica 45.0780 

Combined  silica .^. 18.9760 

Soluble  silica .0430 

Potash  (K20) 2770 

Soda(Na20) .4377 

Lime  (CaO) .0828 

Magnesia  (MgO) .0658 

Peroxid  of  iron  (Fe203) 6.4807 

Alumina  (A1203) 9.4547 

Phosphoric  acid  ( P2Os ) . 3006 

Sulphuric  acid  (SO 3 ) .0247 

Chlorin . .0099 

Water  at  120° C 9.6800 

Volatile  and  organic  matter 8.6933 


Total 99.6042 


Humus .1910 

Nitrogen .0463 


Sample  No.  28  was  also  sent  from  Willapa,  Pacific  county,  and 
Mr.  Dixon  writes  as  follows  concerning  it:  “This  is  a sample  of 
our  much  despised  hill  land.  The  soil  is  two  feet  deep,  with  clay 
subsoil  resting  on  soapstone.  It  is  known  to  suit  clovers  or  deep 
rooted  plants,  and  wheat,  orchard  grass  and  oats  do  well.  Pears, 
plums,  and  some  varieties  of  apples,  such  as  Rhode  Island  Green- 
ings, Ben  Davis  and  Baldwins  do  well;  but  Spitzenbergs  and  Yel- 
low Pippins  don’t  thrive.  Timothy  does  not  do  well.  Will  this 
be  a good  prune  soil?” 

This  sample  is  distinctly  reddish  in  color  and  contains  more  sand 
than  No.  27.  The  potash  in  this  soil  is  satisfactory,  and  the  phos- 
phoric acid  is  present  in  quantities  much  greater  than  necessary 
were  it  all  in  an  available  form.  However,  as  in  case  of  No.  27, 
probably  only  a very  small  fraction  is  available  because  of  the  very 
great  deficiency  in  lime.  This  would  be  a good  strong  soil  if  it 
could  have  from  0.6  to  1 per  cent  of  lime.  It  would  not  be  well 
adapted  to  stone  fruits  for  the  same  reasons  as  given  under  No.  27. 
It  must  be  limed  before  durability  can  be  assured. 

Soil  No.  29.  Per  cent. 

69.6529 


Insoluble  residue. 

Insoluble  silica..  1 
Combined  silica/ 


69.6529 


Bulletin  13. — Washington  Soils. 


27 


Soluble  silica 

Potash  ( K20) 

Soda  (Na20) 

Lime  (CaO) 

Magnesia  ( MgO) 

Peroxid  of  iron  (Fe203) 

Alumina  ( A1203) 

Phosphoric  acid  (P2Os) 

Sulphuric  acid  (S03 ) 

Chlorin 

Water  at  120°  C 

Volatile  and  organic  matter. 


.0220 

.4486 

.5041 

.7810 

.1228 

4.8229 

8.1376 

.3455 

.0494 

.0066 

3.4933 

11.6133 


Total 


100.0000 


Humus 3.4655 

Nitrogen .7203 


Sample  No.  29  was  taken  from  the  garden  of  A.  L.  Smith,  about 
twelve  miles  northeast  of  Spokane.  The  garden  lies  at  the  foot  of 
“Mica”  mountain,  and  comprises  about  seven  acres  of  land  lying 
in  rather  a low  spot  and  almost  surrounded  by  hills.  The  soil  has 
evidently  been  transported  to  this  spot  by  the  action  of  water,  and 
consists  mainly  of  the  wash  from  the  higher  elevations  in  the 
vicinity,  greatly  enriched  by  the  accumulation  of  organic  matter 
from  the  decaying  vegetation  of  many  years.  It  contains  a large 
amount  of  mica  (muscovite),  owing  to  the  fact  that  granite  is  the 
characteristic  rock  of  the  locality. 

This  soil  has  never  been  fertilized  and  has  yielded  three  excellent 
crops  of  celery,  which  has  a delicacy  of  flavor  that  is  unsurpassed. 
The  garden  is  irrigated  by  a little  natural  stream  that  flows  through 
it.  Theoretically  this  is  the  strongest  soil,  and  gives  greater 
promise  of  durability  than  any  that  have  been  analyzed  in  our  lab- 
oratory. The  percentages  of  potash  and  phosphoric  acid  are  all 
that  could  be  desired  in  a soil  of  this  type,  while  the  amount  of 
lime  is  sufficient  to  make  a large  amount  of  the  latter  available  by 
combining  with  it  to  form  the  soluble  calcium  phosphate.  This 
soil  contains  no  organic  matter  in  the  form  of  woody  fiber,  and 
hence  does  not  approach  peat  or  muck.  The  decomposition  has 
gone  so  far  that  a very  large  amount  of  humus  is  present,  which 
contains  a high  proportion  of  nitrogen.  This  fact  doubtless  ex- 
plains, in  part  at  least,  the  adaptability  of  this  soil  to  raising  celery 
and  vegetables.  It  is  noticeable  that,  although  the  organic  matter 
*s  only  slightly  in  excess  of  the  amount  contained  in  No.  27,  the 
percentages  of  humus  and  nitrogen  are  very  much  greater. 

This  garden  lies  near  “Saltese”  lake  or  marsh,  but  on  somewhat 
higher  ground. 


28 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  /Station . 


Soil  No.  31.  Per  cent. 

Insoluble  residue .'. 57.9928 


Insoluble  silica 43.6196 

Combined  silica 14.3732 

Soluble  silica .2750 

Potash  (K20) '. .6505 

Soda  ( Na20) - 1.0763 

Lime  (CaO) .4315 

Magnesia  (MgO) : .0334 

Peroxid  of  iron  (Fe203  ) 9.7362 

Alumina  ( A120  3 ) 13.8841 

Phosphoric  acid  ( P206 ) .5438 

Sulphuric  acid  (S03) : .0258 

Chlorin 0249 

Water  at  120  ° C 5 . 9200 

Volatile  and  organic  matter !. 10.2400 


Total 


100.8343 


Humus 2.2064 

Nitrogen .5211 

Sample  No.  31  was  sent  by  O.  P.  McFall,  of  Portland,  Oregon. 
It  was  taken  from  about  fifteen  miles  east  of  Vancouver,  Clarke 
county,  from  virgin  soil.  It  is  a brown  soil  of  loose  texture,  and 
well  drained.  It  has  a depth  of  from  four  to  six  feet,  and  rests  on 
gravel. 

The  sample  contains  the  highest  percentage  of  phosphoric  acid 
of  any  sample  yet  analyzed.  It  has  an  ample  supply  of  potash,  but 
there  is  too  little  lime  to  guarantee  longevity.  With  the  addition 
of  lime  this  would  doubtless  make  a very  durable  fruit  soil.  It  is 
located  in  the  prune  belt  of  the  county. 

The  humus  and  nitrogen  percentages  are  high. 


Soil  No.  32.  Per  cent. 

Insoluble  residue. 1 56.9087 

Insoluble  silica...  1 g6  908- 

Combined  silicia  J 

Soluble  silica .0155 

Potash  (KsO) 0126 

Soda  (Na20) , 9338 

Lime  (CaO) .1303 

Magnesia  (MgO) .0334 

Peroxid  of  iron  (Fe203) 3.1047 

Alumina  (A1203  ) ^ 8.4270 

Phosphoric  acid  (P205) .3118 

Sulphuric  acid  (S03) ' .0090 

Chlorin 0199 

Water  at  120°  C 7 . 3200 

Volatile  and  organic  matter 23.1733 


Total 100.0000 


Humus 3.9797 

Nitrogen 1.1290 


Bulletin  13. — Washington  Soils. 


29 


Sample  No.  32  was  also  sent  by  O.  P.  McFall,  of  Portland,  Ore- 
gon, and  was  taken  from  the  same  locality  as  No.  31.  In  many 
places  of  Clarke  county,  there  are  patches  of  ground,  varying  in 
size,  in  which  the  soil  is  much  darker  colored  than  the  surrounding 
soil,  and  which  are  said  to  raise  excellent  crops  of  wheat.  This 
sample  is  from  one  of  these  spots.  As  in  case  of  No.  31,  the  high 
percentage  of  soda  would  indicate  alkaline  tendencies,  if  the  soil 
were  found  in  a region  of  scanty  rainfall.  The  sample  is  very  de- 
ficient in  lime.  The  percentage  of  phosphoric  acid,  although  high, 
will  probably  soon  require  an  addition  of  lime  to  increase  its 
availability.  The  potash,  although  low,  would  be  sufficient  for  a 
long  time  if  lime  were  added.  The  nitrogen  content  is  unusually 
high. 

Soil  No.  33. 

Per  cent. 


Insoluble  residue 74.1593 

Insoluble  silica...  | 74  1593 

Combined  silica.  I 

Soluble  silica .2105 

Potash  (K20) 0474 

Soda  (Na20) 2361 

Lime  (CaO) .3980 

Magnesia  (MgO) .0182 

Peroxid  of  iron  (Pe203) : 5.1544 

Alumina  (A120  3) 7.8630 

Phosphoric  acid  (P206) .3998 

Sulphuric  acid  (SO 3 ) trace. 

Chlorin .0199 

Water  at  120°  C 3.6267 

Volatile  and  organic  matter 7.8667 


Total 100.0000 


Humus i 1.9435 

Nitrogen .3729 


Sample  No.  33  was  sent  from  Lookout,  Skagit  county,  by  J.  P. 
Reid.  Concerning  this  soil  he  writes:  “This  is  a fair  sample  of 
the  soil  in  about  forty  sections  in  townships  36  and  37  north,  range 
3 east,  with  the  exception  that  it  is  taken  from  a heavy  timber  burn 
of  twenty  or  thirty  years  ago,  and  I do  not  think  it  contains  as 
much  vegetable  matter  as  the  bulk  of  this  tract  of  land.  This  soil 
rests  on  a slaty  quartz  formation,  while  the  surrounding  country 
(outside  these  forty  sections)  is  a sandstone  formation.  Aside 
from  fir,  cedar,  hemlock,  vine  maple,  and  cherry,  there  is  almost  no 
vegetation  except  tall  fern  and  the  dewberry.  I have  no  success 
on  this  soil  with  red  or  white  clover,  timothy,  blue  grass,  red  top, 
orchard  grass,  alfalfa,  vetch  or  buckwheat.  The  soil  is  about  two 


30 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


feet  deep  and  rests  on  a subsoil  composed  of  a mixture  of  gray- 
clay,  sand  and  gravel.” 

The  same  remark  applies  to  this  as  to  all  the  soils  pf  Western 
Washington,  concerning  lime.  The  lime  percentage  is  too  low  to 
insure  productiveness  for  a long  period.  The  potash  percentage  is 
also  very  low,  while  the  phosphoric  acid  is  high.  The  amount  of 
nitrogen  is  sufficient.  While  the  soil  would  be  greatly  benefited 
by  the  application  of  fertilizers  containing  lime  and  potash,  the 
analysis  does  not  reveal  a deficiency  of  plant  food  that  would  ac- 
count for  the  failure  of  grasses  and  clovers  to  thrive.  Such  failure 
must  be  due  either  to  climatic  conditions,  or  to  peculiar  physical 
features  of  the  soil.  In  appearance  it  does  not  differ  from  most  of 
the  coast  soils. 

The  chemical  analysis  throws  very  little  light  upon  the  causes  of 
a lack  of  productiveness.  A mechanical  analysis  may  reveal  them. 


Soil  No.  34. 


Insoluble  residue. 


Per  cent. 
81.3580 


Insoluble  silica. 

Combined  silica 

Soluble  silica — 

Potash  (K20) 

Soda  (Na20) 

Lime  (CaO) 

Magnesia  (MgO) 

Peroxid  of  iron  (Fe203) 

Alumina  (A1203) 

Phosphoric  acid  ( P205 ) 

Sulphuric  acid  (S03) 

Chlorin 

Water  at  120°  C 

Volatile  and  organic  matter. 


48.4460 

32.9120 

.1410 

.1200 

.4722 

.6755 

.1163 

1.8086 

2.5917 

.1727 

.0494 

.0111 

4.9200 

7.8000 


Total , 100.2365 

Humus 2.1905 

Nitrogen .4390 

Sample  No.  34  was  sent  by  H.  W.  McCann,  of  Pine  City,  Whit- 
man county.  No  data  accompanied  it  except  the  name  “white 
earth,”  by  which  it  is  locally  known.  It  is  a very  light,  ashy 
looking  material,  and  resembles  quite  closely  in  appearance  the 
white  silicate  so  common  in  western  Nebraska  and  Colorado. 

It  contains  sufficient  amounts  of  lime,  potash  and  phosphoric 
acid  for  plant  nutrition,  and  has  remarkably  high  percentages  of 
humus  and  nitrogen  for  such  a light,  siliceous  substance. 

A somewhat  similar  substance  in  appearance  and  composition  is 
occasionally  found,  at  a depth  of  eighteen  to  twenty-four  inches,  in 


Bulletin  13. — Washington  Soils. 


31 


the  Sunnyside  district  of  Yakima  county,  underlying  a soil  that  is 
said  to  grow  only  small  sage  brush. 


Soil  No.  39.  Per  cenL 

Insoluble  residue 80.6234 


Insoluble  silica . 68.2064 

Combined  silica 12.4170 

Soluble  silica 2127 

Potash  (K20) .2748 

Soda  (Na20) 1.2013 

Lime(CaO) 9790 

Magnesia  ( MgO) , . 0159 

Peroxid  of  iron  (Fe203) 1 5.4860 

Alumina  (A120  3 ) 5.6074 

Phosphoric  acid  ( P2Os ) .1663 

Sulphuric  acid  (S03) .0429 

Chlorin.... 0083 

Water  at  120°  C 1.9333 

Volatile  and  organic  matter 3.1467 


Total 99.6980 


Humus .6898 

Nitrogen . 2360 


Sample  39  was  sent  by  John  R.  Reavis,  of  Spokane.  It  was 
taken  from  the  farm  of  E.  E.  Ellis,  twenty  miles  south  of  Ritzville, 
Adams  county.  The  soil  is  a light  sandy  loam  “and  seems  to  ex- 
tend all  the  way  down  to  the  hard  rock,  fifty  to  seventy  feet  below.” 
The  analysis  shows  an  abundance  of  lime  and  phosphoric  acid, 
but  rather  too  small  an  amount  of  potash,  and  too  much  soda,  for  a 
typical  soil  of  strength  and  durability.  The  proportion  of  iron  is 
greater,  and  of  alumina  less,  than  in  most  soils  of  this  class.  The 
depth  of  this  soil  and  its  wealth  of  lime  and  phosphoric  acid  should 
make  it  a good  soil  for  fruits,  if  it  were  in  a belt  of  proper  climatic 


conditions. 

Soil  No.  40.  Per  cent. 

Insoluble  residue 80.4464 

Insoluble  silica 67.2544 

Combined  silica 13.1920 

Soluble  silica .3527 

Potash  (K20) .0582 

Soda  (Na20).. 2916 

Lime  ( CaO ) 1 . 7580 

Magnesia  ( MgO ) . 6477 

Peroxide  of  iron  (Fe203) 1 5.5162 

Alumina  (A1203) 6.7589 

Phosphoric  acid  ( P2Ob) .1599 

Sulphuric  acid  (SO 3 ) .0551 

Chlorin 0133 

Water  at  120°  C 1.6667 

Volatile  and  organic  matter 3.3667 

Total 101.0914 

Humus . .5446 

Nitrogen .1670 


32 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


Sample  No.  40  was  also  taken  in  Adams  county,  only  a few  miles 
from  No.  39,  from  the  farm  of  E.  Leonard.  Sent  by  John  R. 
Reavis  of  Spokane. 

A comparison  of  the  composition  of  these  two  soils  shows  no 
material  differences  except  in  case  of  lime  and  the  alkalies.  No. 
40  contains  nearly  twice  as  much  lime  as  No.  39,  but  a much  smaller 
proportion  of  soda  and  potash.  The  tendency  to  alkalinity  shown 
in  No.  39  by  the  large  amount  of  soda,  is  not  seen  in  No.  40.  It 
is  probable  that  both  soils  will  be  exhausted  of  their  potash  sooner 
than  anything  else.  Even  now,  potash  fertilizers  would,  doubtless, 
produce  an  increased  yield,  especially  with  plants  producing  starch, 
such  as  potatoes. 

Soil  No.  41. 

Per  cent. 


Insoluble  residue : 75.1014 

Insoluble  silica 62.0454 

Combined  silica 13.0560 

Soluble  silica . .2027 

Potash  (K20) .4422 

Soda(Na20).. ; .9446 

Lime  (CaO) .9300 

Magnesia  ( MgO) .3627 

Peroxid  of  iron  (Fe203) 4.9132 

Alumina  (A1203) 7.8131 

Phosphoric  acid  ( P205 ) .1919 

Sulphuric  acid  ( S03) .0597 

Chlorin .0149 

Water  at  120°  C 2.4560 

Volatile  and  organic  matter : 7.0400 

Total 100.4724 

Humus 1.0606 

Nitrogen 3210 


Sample  No.  41,  sent  by  John  R.  Reavis,  was  taken  from  the  farm 
of  E.  H.  Morrison,  on  section  19,  township  22,  Spokane  county. 

The  analysis  of  this  soil  simply  confirms  what  experience  has 
already  shown  to  be  true,  viz.,  that  this  is  an  exceedingly  fertile 
soil.  Not  only  is  it  rich  in  the  elements  of  plant  food,  but  its 
physical  conditions  seem  to  be  perfectly  adapted  to  plant  develop- 
ment, and  the  rainfall  of  the  region  is  ample  for  agricultural  needs. 
Clay  subsoil. 

Samples  39,  40  and  41  were  analyzed  by  request,  to  determine 
their  adaptability  to  sugar  beet  culture.  Hence  we  give,  in  the  fol- 
lowing table,  for  the  sake  of  comparison,  the  analyses  of  these  three 
soils,  two  sugar  beet  soils  of  Nebraska  analyzed  by  the  writer  a few 
years  ago,  and  one  beet  soil  each  from  France  and  Russia. 


Bulletin  13. — Washington  Soils. 


33 


-3 


“ Sugar  Beet,”  pp.  103-4.  f “ La  Bettrave  a Sucre,”  p.  82. 


34 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


An  inspection  of  this  table  shows  that  Nebraska  beet  soils  are 
much  richer  in  potash  than  the  Washington  soils,  but  contain  a 
lower  percentage  of  both  lime  and  phosphoric  acid.  The  soils  from 
France  and  Russia  are  said  to  produce  excellent  sugar  beets.  The 
former  is  very  deficient  in  plant  food  when  compared  with  our  own 
soils,  while  the  one  from  Russia  has  unusually  large  amounts  of 
potash  and  lime,  but  is  low  in  phosphoric  acid. 

Bulletin  No.  3 of  the  United  States  Weather  Bureau  gives  the 
analyses  of  two  “dust  soils”  of  the  arid  region.  These  are  inserted 
here  because  of  their  intrinsic  interest,  and  because  they  have  a 
direct  bearing  on  some  points  to  be  discussed  in  succeeding  pages. 

No.  1 was  taken  from  Ahtanum  prairie,  Yakima  county,  and  No. 
2 from  near  Rattlesnake  creek,  Kittitas  county*. 


No.  1. 

No.  2. 

Insoluble  residue 

76.780 

80.530 

Insoluble  silica 

71.670 

5.110 

1.070 

.350 

2.000 

1.340 

6.880 

7.910 

.130 

.020 

2.820 

78.330 

2.200 

.700 

.240 

2.080 

1.470 

6.130 

6.120 

.180 

.020 

2.350 

Combined  silica 

Potash  ( K20) 

Soda  (Na„0) 

Lime  CaO) 

Magnesia  (MgO) 

PfitoxiH  of  iron  ( F'o„03  1 , 

Alumina  ( A1203 ) 

Phosphoric  acid  (P.,05) 

Siilphurio  fipid  (S031 

Water  and  organic  matter 

Total 

99.290 

99.830 

Humus 

4.100 

In  the  bulletin  from  which  these  analyses  are  taken,  the  follow- 
ing comment  is  made: 

“In  their  chemical  composition  these  soils  are  very  good  illustrations 
of  generalized  soils  of  the  arid  regions.  It  will  also  be  noticed  that  the 
percentages  of  mineral  plant  food  in  these  soils  is  quite  large,  and  that 
according  to  all  experience  they  should  be  found  profusely  and  per- 
manently productive.  This  forecast  is  abundantly  confirmed  by  local 
experience.” 

No  analyses  having  been  made  by  us  as  yet  from  Southeastern 
Washington,  we  have  thought  it  best  to  insert  here  the  analytical 
results  obtained  ten  years  ago  from  seven  samples  from  that  section 
of  the  state,  by  the  chemical  division,  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture,  published  in  Bulletin  No.  10. 


Bulletin  13. — Washington  Soils. 


35 


36 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


The  following  comments  and  explanations  are  taken  from  the 
bulletin  containing  the  above  tables: 

The  samples  were  taken  from  various  points  of  a section  of  unsettled 
country  (1885)  lying  between  the  Yakima  and  Columbia  rivers,  and  west 
of  Wallula,  on  the  Northern  Pacific  Railroad,  comprising  about  1,300 
square  miles  of  gently  rolling  plateau,  from  500  to  1,000  feet  above  sea 
level;  the  only  drawback  being  a lack  of  running  streams  of  water  on  any 
part  of  it,  and  but  few  natural  springs.  Water  is  reached  at  varying 
depths,  from  fourteen  to  eighty  feet.  The  samples  were  taken  from  one 
to  five  feet  in  depth,  the  soil  being  a decomposed  basalt  from  three  to  100 
feet  deep,  and  the  subsoil  being  basaltic  rock. 

No.  1656. — Sandy  soil  from  five  miles  northeast  of  Umatilla,  Or. 

No.  1657. — Surface  soil  in  Grant’s  ranch,  Sec.  24,  T.  11,  R.  24. 

No.  1658. — Two  feet  of  soil  in  Grant’s  ranch,  Sec.  24,  T.  11,  R.  25. 

No.  1659.— Soil  from  T.  8,  R.  26. 

No.  1660. — Soil  from  Sec.  26,  T.  7,  R.  26. 

No.  1661. — Soil  from  middle  of  T.  8,  R.  27,  between  Yakima  and  Col- 
umbia rivers. 

No.  1662. — Soil  from  Sec.  12,  T.  8,  R.  28. 

These  samples  were  taken  in  1884,  and  are  samples  of  virgin  soil,  and 
contain  a large  amount  of  the  most  important  soil  constituents,  as  phos- 
phoric acid,  lime,  potash,  etc.,  and  should  produce  abundant  crops  under 
favorable  climatic  conditions.  In  their  content  of  nitrogen,  however, 
they  are,  with  the  exception  of  Nos.  1660  and  1661,  somewhat  deficient; 
and  this  would  indicate  that  ammoniacal  manures  would  have  to  be 
applied  in  the  future,  if  by  excessive  cropping  the  soil  should  become 
unproductive. 

For  convenience  of  comparison  we  have  classified  the  soils  ana- 
lyzed by  us  into  three  groups:  Table  I includes  all  samples  from 
west  of  the  Cascade  mountains.  Table  II  embraces  all  those  taken 
from  the  irrigated  districts  of  Eastern  and  Central  Washington. 
Table  III  includes  the  soils  of  the  Palouse  country. 


Table  I. 


37 


Bulletin  IS. — Washington  Soils. 


8S 

£ 

74.1593 

.2105 

.0474 

.2361 

.3980 

.0182 

5.1524 

7.8630 

.3998 

trace. 

.0199 

3.6267 

7.8667 

100.0000 

1.9435 

.3729 

No.  32. 

| 56.9087 

.0155 

.0126 

.9338 

.1303 

.0334 

3.1047 

8.4270 

.3118 

.0090 

.0199 

7.3200 

23.1733 

100.0000 

3.9797 

1.1290 

No.  31. 

43.6196 

14.3732 

.2750 

.6505 

1.0763 

.4315 

.0334 

9.7362 

13.8841 

.5438 

.0258 

.0249 

5.9200 

10.2400 

100.8343 

2.2064 

.5211 

No.  28. 

45.0780 

18.9760 

.0430 

.2770 

.4377 

.0828 

.0658 

6.4807 

9.4547 

.3006 

.0247 

.0099 

9.6800 

8.6933 

99.6042 

.1910 

.0463 

45.4490 

15.0420 

.0253 

.0154 

.4643 

.1090 

.0226 

6.0888 

9.4315 

.1407 

.0079 

.0149 

12.8533 

10.4267 

100.0914 

.4227 

.2321 

No.  25. 

68.4150 

10.6460 

.9850 

.5908 

.0584 

.3625 

.2810 

6.4625 

7.2316 

.3535 

trace. 

.0179 

1.8534 

2.7341 

99.9917 

.3551 

.1780 

.p 

21.6490 

6.7030 

.1808 

.1366 

.1910 

.3790 

.0361 

1.0550 

4.3012 

.3135 

.0934 

.0183 

11.7600 

52.8739 

99.6908 

6.9154 

1.3466 

a 

.© 

fe; 

66.6680 

9.1870 

.0330 

.0077 

.2865 

.7690 

.4261 

3.5870 

6.4646 

.0544 

.0384 

.0066 

3.1200 

9.1600 

99.8083 

2.0010 

.2345 

No.  19. 

70.9610 

9.6490 

.4200 

.2022 

.2785 

.6550 

trace. 

4.5351 

7.1591 

.0384 

trace. 

.0029 

1.7773 

4.5651 

100.2436 

1.8960 

.1023 

Insoluble  silica 

Combined  silica 

Soluble  silica 

Potash  (K20) 

Soda  (NaaO) 

Lime  (CaO) 

Magnesia  (MgO) 

Peroxid  of  iron  (Fe203) 

Alumina  (A1203) 

Phosphoric  acid  (P2Ob) 

Sulphuric  acid  (S03) 

Chlorin 

Water  at  120°  C 

Volatile  and  organic  matter 

Totals 

Humus 

Nitrogen 

i.  19,  20,  21  and  33,  from  Skagit  county;  Nos.  25,  31  and  32,  froln  Clarke  county;  Nos.  27  and  28,  from  Pacific  comity. 


38 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


An  inspection  of  this  table  shows  that  with  the  exceptions  of  Nos. 
25  and  31,  the  potash  percentages  are  quite  low,  and  that  in  all 
cases,  except  No.  25,  is  below  the  percentage  of  soda.  This  is  a 
somewhat  unusual  circumstance,  and  at  present  we  have  no  explana- 
tion to  offer  to  account  for  it. 

Nos.  19  and  20  are  the  only  ones  in  which  lime  is  present  in  satis- 
factory amounts,  and  these  two  come  from  a section  of  low  rainfall 
as  compared  to  the  other  localities  represented  in  this  table.  The 
percentages  of  phosphoric  acid  are  unusually  high,  except  in  Nos. 
19  and  20.  The  amounts  of  iron  vary  from  1 to  9-J  per  cent.  The 
nitrogen  content  is  satisfactory  in  all,  but  rather  low  in  No.  28. 

Table  II. 


No.  17. 

No.  39. 

O 

. o 

Insoluble  residue 

78.4340 

80.6234 

80.4464 

Insoluble  silica 

60.2070 

68.2064 

67.2544 

Combined  silica 

18.2270 

12.4170 

13.1920 

Soluble  silica 

.2100 

.2127 

.3527 

Potash  (K20) 

.4328 

.2748 

.0582 

.2916 

Soda  (Na20) 

.3729 

1.2013 

Lime  ( CaO ) 

1.2127 

.9790 

1.7580 

Magnesia  ( MgO ) 

.7880 

.0159 

.6477 

Peroxid  of  iron  (Fe203) 

5.1586 

5.4860 

5.5162 

Alumina,  ( Al.Oj) 

6.8906 

5.6074 

6.7589 

.1599 

Phosphoric  acid  ( P2Os ) 

.1007 

.1663 

Sulphuric  acid  ( S03 ) 

trace. 

.0429 

.0551 

Chlorin 

.0058 

.0083 

.0133 

Water  at  120°  C 

3.4527 

1.9333 

1.6667 

Volatile  and  organic  matter 

3.0195 

3.1467 

3.3667 

Total 

100.0793 

99.6980 

101.0914 

Humus 

.2550 

.6898 

.5446 

Nitrogen 

.0876 

.2360 

.1670 

No.  17,  from  Yakima  county;  Nos.  39  and  40,  from  Adams  county. 


This  table  shows  a low  percentage  of  potash  in  39  and  40.  All 
three  samples  contain  large  amounts  of  lime,  and  a high  proportion 
of  phosphoric  acid.  It  is  also  to  be  noted  that  the  ratio  between 
the  percentages  of  iron  and  alumina  is  nearly  the  same  in  each  soil. 
This  is  probably  a mere  coincidence.  In  Nos.  39  and  40,  as  with 
the  Western  Washington  samples,  the  soda  is  in  excess  of  the  pot- 
ash. 

The  amount  of  insoluble  matter  is  nearly  constant. 


Bulletin  13.  — Washington  Soils. 


39 


Table  III. 


No.  5. 

No.  11. 

No.  16. 

No.  29. 

No.  Ul. 

Insoluble  residue 

76.4944 

78.7114 

77.7110 

69.6529 

75.1014 

Insoluble  silica 

Combined  silica 

62.8314 

13.6630 

65.7684 

12.9430 

60.6690 

17.0420 

| 69.6529 

r 62.0454 
j 13.0560 

Soluble  silica 

.3010 

.0156 

.4650 

.0220 

.2027 

Potash  (K20) 

.6351 

.3315 

.5308 

.4486 

.4422 

Soda  (Na20) 

.3739 

.5687 

.3236 

.5041 

.9446 

Lime  ( CaO) 

1.0814 

1.5125 

1.1800 

.7810 

.9300 

Magnesia  (MgO) 

.7277 

1.5274 

.7339 

.1228 

.3627 

Peroxid  of  iron  (Fe203) 

4.5539 

4.6101 

4.2705 

4.8229 

4.9132 

Alumina  (A1203) 

7.5263 

5.9300 

6.3703 

8.1376 

7.8131 

Phosphoric  acid  (P20s) 

.1423 

.1823 

.1392 

.3455 

.1919 

Sulphuric  acid  (S03) 

trace. 

trace. 

trace. 

.0494 

.0597 

Chlorin 

.0204 

.0152 

.0048 

.0066 

.0149 

Water  at  120°  C 

4.5234 

2.7313 

2.6341 

3.4933 

2.4560 

Volatile  and  organic  matter... 

3.6124 

3.7452 

5.5002 

11.6133 

7.0400 

Total 

99.9922 

99.8812 

99.8634 

100.0000 

100.4724 

Humus 

.9950 

.6100 

1.2211 

3.4655 

1.0606 

Nitrogen 

.1096 

.1409 

.1120 

.7203 

.3210 

Nos.  5,  LI  and  16,  from  Whitman  county.  Nos.  29  and  41,  from  Spokane  county. 

The  soils  of  this  table  all  show  strong  percentages  of  potash, 
lime  and  phosphoric  acid.  Three  of  them  have  more  soda  than 
potash. 

These  tables  furnish  us  with  some  interesting  facts  which  may- 
or may  not  be  of  special  importance. 

We  give  below  the  maximum,  minimum  and  average  percentages 
of  lime,  phosphoric  acid  and  potash,  found  in  Eastern  and  Western 
Washington  soils. 


Eastern. 

Western. 

Maxi- 

mum. 

Mini- 

mum. 

Aver- 

age. 

Maxi- 

mum. 

Mini- 

mum. 

Aver- 

age. 

Potash  (K20) 

.6351 

.0582 

.3943 

.6505 

.0126 

.2156 

Phosphoric  acid  (P2Os) 

.3455 

.1007 

.1785 

.5438 

.0384 

.2730 

Lime  (CaO) 

1.7580 

.9300 

1.1793 

.7690 

.0828 

.3686 

This  shows  the  soils  of  Western  Washington  to  have  a higher 
average  per  cent,  of  phosphoric  acid,  but  lower  average  of  potash 
and  lime,  than  those  of  Eastern  Washington.  Hence  the  former 
will  wear  out  sooner  on  the  side  of  lime  and  potash. 

Results  of  a large  number  of  analyses  have  shown  almost  conclu- 


40 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


sively  that  soils  in  a region  of  abundant  rainfall  contain  less  lime 
than  those  in  arid  regions;  provided,  of  course,  that  neither  are 
underlaid  by  or  in  the  vicinity  of  limestone  formations^  This  fact 
is  well  verified  in  case  of  our  soils  east  and  west  of  the  Cascade 
mountains;  the  average  lime  content  of  the  former  being  three 
times  that  of  the  latter.  This  is  specially  significant  in  view  of 
the  fact  that  nearly  all  the  soils  of  Eastern  Washington  are  derived 
directly  from  black  basaltic  rocks. 

With  the  samples  analyzed  so  far,  it  seems  almost  as  if  the  lime 
percentages  are  inversely  proportional  to  the  amount  of  annual 
rainfall. 

For  example  we  find  the  following  relations: 


Lime  percentages. 
1.2127) 

.9790  y 

1.7580  j 
1.0814) 

1.1800  I 

.7810  | 

.9300  J 
.6550  > 

.7690/ 


.3625) 
.4315  . 
.1303) 


. 1090 1 
.0828] 


Annual  rainfall. 
.about  8 inches. 

.20  to  22  inches. 
24  inches. 
48  inches. 
76  inches. 


It  will  be  interesting  to  note  whether  future  analyses  will  reveal 
this  same  relation  between  the  rainfall  and  the  lime  content  of  our 
soils. 

All  of  the  Washington  soils  thus  far  analyzed,  except  one,  are 
unusually  high  in  phosphoric  acid.  It  is  easy  to  account  for  this 
fact  in  portions  of  the  state  where  the  soil  has  been  derived  from 
basaltic  rocks.  Basalt  frequently  contains  small  crystals  of  apatite, 
which  are  mainly  calcium  phosphate.  This  substance  is  quite  in- 
soluble, but  the  chemical  and  mechanical  processes  that  contributed 
to  soil  formations  have,  without  doubt,  furnished  an  abundance  of 
the  finely  pulverized  mineral  available  for  the  use  of  plants.  The 
basaltic  soils  wherever  found  are  highly  productive.  They  are  the 
characteristic  soils  of  Italy  and  other  places  bordering  on  the  Medi- 
terranean. In  Washington  they  have  produced  wonderful  grain 
crops  for  many  years  without  apparent  exhaustion.  It  is  probable 
that  when  their  productiveness  declines,  potash,  and  not  phosphoric 
acid,  will  be  needed. 

We  are  not  yet  prepared  to  advance  any  theory  to  account  for 


Bulletin  13. — Washington  Soils. 


41 


the  very  high  proportions  of  phosphoric  acid  in  the  soils  of  Western 
Washington.  More  data  are  needed  from  other  analyses. 

CONCLUSION. 

As  said  at  the  beginning,  this  is  only  put  forth  as  a preliminary 
bulletin,  hence  is  not  complete.  It  is  the  first  of  a series  of  bul- 
letins that  will  be  issued  as  the  work  of  a state  soil  survey  pro- 
gresses. This  work  will  necessarily  be  slow,  but  will  be  pushed 
as  rapidly  as  possible,  consistent  with  thoroughness  and  accuracy. 

We  summarize  the  preceding  pages  as  follows: 

(1)  Soils  are  derived  from  original  rock  masses,  and  partake  of 
the  characters  of  the  rocks. 

(2)  They  are  enriched  by  the  products  of  decomposition  of  veg- 
etable matter. 

(3)  The  mineral  plant  food  derived  from  the  rocks  consists  of 
about  twelve  substances. 

(4)  Of  these  substances  only  three,  viz.,  lime,  potash  and  phos- 
phoric acid,  must  be  restored  to  the  soil  to  maintain  or  increase 
fertility. 

( 5 ) Barrenness  may  be  due  — ( 1 ) To  a deficiency  in  these  three 
substances;  or  (2)  to  their  not  being  in  an  available  form;  or  (3) 
to  adverse  climatic  conditions. 

(6)  Chemical  analysis  can  reveal  deficiencies  in  plant  food  and 
give  percentage  composition,  but  cannot  show  the  availability  of 
the  constituents  to  the  use  of  the  plant. 

(7)  Chemical  analysis,  supplemented  by  mechanical  analysis,  by 
geological  facts,  by  cultivation  experience  and  by  meteorological 
data,  may  yield  great  service  to  agriculture  and  horticulture. 

(8)  Analytical  results  prove  that  Western  Washington  soils 
will  be  greatly  strengthened  by  the  application  of  lime. 

(9)  The  average  percentages  of  lime  and  potash  are  higher  and 
phosphoric  acid  lower  in  Eastern  than  in  Western  Washington. 

(10)  The  lime  percentages  are  lower  in  regions  of  abundant 
rainfall  than  in  the  drier  portions  of  the  state. 

(11)  The  objective  point  of  this  work  on  soils  is  a complete  soil 
survey  of  the  state,  which  will  be  carried  on  as  rapidly  as  possible. 


' 


•>:  V*;-  7 


9 

■ 

v ' *•?;  / ’•  • '.  .>;■:•  ; > v f ■>•,■■>  r.»  l'kU 


WASHINGTON  STATE  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE  AND 
SCHOOL  OF  SCIENCE. 


Experiment  Station, 

PULLMAN,  WASHINGTON. 


Bulletin  14. 

(All  Bulletins  of  this  Station  are  sent  free  to  citizens  of  the  State  on  ap- 
plication to  the  Director.) 


DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE. 
SILOS  AND  ENSILAGE. 

By  W.  J.  Spillman. 


NOVEMBER,  1894. 


O.  C.  WHITE,  STATE  PRINTER,  OLYMPIA. 


THE  AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION, 


BOARD  OF  CONTROL. 


Charles  R.  Connor,  President, Spokane. 

T.  R.  Tannatt,  Vice  President, Farmington. 

J.  W.  Stearns,  Treasurer,  Tekoa. 

E.  S.  Ingraham, Seattle. 

H.  S.  Blandford, Walla  Walla. 


STATION  STAFF. 


Director, 

Agriculturist, 

Potanist  and  Entomologist,  . . . . 

Chemist, 

Horticulturist , 

Assistant  Chemist , . 


Enoch  A.  Bryan. 

W.  J.  Spillman. 
Charles  V.  Piper. 
Elton  Fulmer. 

John  A.  Balmer. 
Clarence  C.  Fletcher. 


PREFACE. 


So  much  has  been  accomplished  by  the  experiment  stations  dur- 
ing the  few  years  of  their  existence,  that  it  now  seems  a duty  every 
station  owes  its  constituency  to  compile  the  facts  so  far  learned 
for  the  benefit  of  farmers  who  do  not  have  access  to  the  bulletins 
issued  by  stations  in  other  states.  The  present  bulletin  is  mainly 
such  a compilation. 

Since  stock  raising  has  already  become  an  important  feature  of 
the  agriculture  of  this  state,  and  dairying  is  rapidly  becoming  one 
of  our  leading  industries,  it  is  probable  that  many  farmers  in  the 
state  will,  in  the  near  future,  desire  to  construct  silos.  This  being 
the  case,  it  is  the  duty  of  the  experiment  station  to  give  them  the 
benefit  of  the  twenty  years  of  experience  with  silos  in  this  country. 
It  is  with  this  object  in  view  that  this  bulletin  is  issued.  As  silos 
are  little  known  in  the  state,  it  is  assumed  that  elementary  facts 
about  the  subject  in  hand  will  be  appreciated  by  many  who  read 
this. 

Acknowledgments  are  due  to  Prof.  F.  H.  King,  of  the  Wiscon- 
sin station,  for  the  use  of  cuts  3 and  4. 


. 


SILOS  AND  ENSILAGE. 


W.  J.  SPILLMAN. 


A silo  is  a box,  bin,  or  pit  in  which  fodder  may  be  preserved  in 
its  green  state.  Fodder  thus  preserved  is  silage,  or  ensilage.  In 
order  to  keep  fodder  green,  all  that  is  necessary  is  to  keep  the  air 
from  getting  to  it.  The  process  of  making  silage  is  therefore 
based  on  the  same  principle  that  canning  fruit  is.  The  object  of 
making  silage  is  to  have  green  fodder  in  winter  and  in  the  dry  part 
of  the  summer  season,  when  stock  would  otherwise  be  compelled 
to  subsist  entirely  on  dry  feed. 

Fodder  is  usually  run  through  some  kind  of  cutting  machine  be- 
fore it  is  put  into  the  silo,  for  several  reasons:  It  is  easier  to  handle 
in  getting  it  out  of  the  silo;  it  is  more  thoroughly  mixed  up  so  that 
stock  will  eat  all  parts  of  the  plant;  and  in  taking  it  out  of  the  silo 
it  enables  one  to  rake  off  the  whole  top  layer  every  day,  which  is 
an  important  item,  as  will  appear  further  on. 

Changes  That  Take  Place  in  Fodder  in  the  Silo. 

When  fodder  is  cut  up  and  dropped  into  the  silo  there  is  always 
some  air  left  in  the  little  spaces  between  the  pieces.  This  makes 
it  possible  for  the  little  organisims  that  cause  changes  in  animal 
and  vegetable  matter  to  live  for  a few  days  in  the  fodder,  and  to 
cause  certain  changes  to  take  place  in  its  composition.  (If  air  can 
enter  through  holes  in  the  wall,  these  little  organisms  continue  to 
live  and  produce  changes  till  all  the  silage  near  the  air  hole  has 
completely  rotted.) 

The  changes  produced  by  these  microbes  are  not  always  the 
same,  because  there  are  many  kinds  of  microbes  that  may  be  pres- 
ent. But  they  usually  result  in  the  production  of  a small  amount 
of  acids,  thus  imparting  to  the  silage  more  or  less  of  a sour  taste. 
For  this  reason  stock  do  not  usually  relish  ensilage  at  first;  but  if 
it  be  gradually  introduced  into  their  feed  they  become  very  fond 
of  it.  When  well  made,  of  good  material,  it  is  an  excellent  feed 
for  part  of  the  ration  of  stock,  especially  dairy  cows. 


6 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


Ensilage  as  a Stock  Feed. 

There  is  no  longer  any  doubt  that  ensilage  is  one  of  the  best  feed 
stuffs  for  cattle,  taking  the  place  of  hay.  A cow  will  ordinarily 
eat  about  one  cubic  foot,  or  forty  pounds,  of  it  per  day,  along  with 
her  grain  ration.  It  has  proven  excellent  for  horses  when  fed  in 
place  of  half  the  regular  hay  ration;  that  is,  about  twenty  pounds  a 
day.  It  has  been  fed  to  sheep  and  hogs  quite  successfully  by  some, 
but  it  has  never  been  a popular  feed  for  them.  Poultrymen  recom- 
mend it  very  highly  for  chickens. 

Ensilage  seems  to  sharpen  the  appetite  of  an  animal  and  to  aid  in 
digesting  other  food.  It  also  tends  to  keep  the  bowels  in  good 
condition. 

Crops  Suitable  for  Silage. 

The  universal  testimony  of  those  who  have  tried  various  kinds 
of  ensilage  is,  that  common  Indian  corn  is  the  best  suited  for  it, 
where  that  can  be  raised;  and  there  is  yet  to  be  discovered  a part 
of  the  United  States  in  which  corn  fails  to  grow  enough  to  make 
fairly  good  silage.  Other  crops  have  been  successfully  used  for 
ensilage,  the  principal  of  which  have  been  clover  and  sorghum.  In 
the  south  the  cow  pea  is  extensively  used.  Alfalfa  has  been  used; 
also  rye.  As  to  the  varieties  of  corn  best  to  use  it  may  be  said 
that  any  variety  that  will  mature  in  the  given  locality  will  make 
good  ensilage.  It  is  not  even  necessary  that  the  corn  mature,  but 
it  makes  better  feed  when  it  can  be  obtained  just  about  the  time  the 
grain  begins  to  become  firm.  The  experiment  station  is  not  yet  in 
a position  to  recommend  any  particular  varieties,  but  will  be,  it  is 
hoped,  another  year.  Some  twenty-five  varieties  will  be  grown  on 
the  college  farm  next  season,  and  the  results  made  public  as  soon  as 
possible.  We  hope  also  to  be  able  to  give  advice  as  to  time  of 
planting,  manner  of  seeding  and  cultivation,  etc.  Farmers  who  are 
desirous  of  experimenting  with  varieties  of  corn  next  season  would 
do  well  to  try  the  following:  Sto well’s  Evergreen,  Minnesota  Dent, 
Learning,  Sibley’s  Pride  of  the  North,  Southern  Ensilage  Corn  and 
Southern  Horse  Tooth.  As  it  is  a matter  of  some  difficulty  to 
keep  varieties  of  corn  from  mixing,  it  is  usually  not  possible  to  ob- 
tain pure  seed  without  dealing  with  men  who  make  seed  raising  a 
specialty;  hence  it  is  recommended  that  those  desiring  seed  corn 
correspond  with  the  regular  seed  men,  whose  advertisements  may 
be  found  in  any  leading  agricultural  paper.  If  it  can  be  done,  it 


Bulletin  lip. — November , 189 Ip. 


7 


pays  to  get  seed  raised  in  this  climate,  as  you  may  then  have  some 
assurance  that  the  corn  will  mature  sufficiently  to  make  good  silage. 

How  to  Grow  Corn  for  Ensilage. 

The  best  way  is  to  plant  it  just  as  you  would  for  fodder  or  for 
the  grain.  If  planted  in  rows  both  ways  and  cultivated  well  it  will 
make  more  and  better  feed  than  when  sown  broadcast  and  given  no 
cultivation.  One  object  of  raising  corn  is  to  get  rid  of  noxious 
weeds,  and  this  can  best  be  done  by  giving  the  ground  such  culti- 
vation as  to  induce  the  weeds  to  grow  and  then  keep  them  from 
growing  by  killing  them  as  soon  as  they  make  their  appearance.  In 
cultivating  corn  remember  the  following  well  established  facts: 
Keep  the  soil  well  stirred  near  the  surface.  Do  not  cultivate  more 
than  two  or  three  inches  deep  after  the  corn  is  six  inches  high. 
Keep  free  from  weeds  till  it  is  too  late  for  weeds  to  mature  seed. 
The  first  two  cultivations  before  the  corn  is  more  than  four  inches 
high  may  be  given  with  a drag  tooth  harrow. 

Putting  Silage  Into  the  Silo. 

Crops  to  be  used  for  silage  should  be  cut,  as  a rule,  just  at  the 
time  when  the  plant  has  begun  to  mature  and  before  its  tissues  have 
begun  to  get  dry  and  hard.  Forage  plants  generally  make  more 
and  better  feed  at  this  stage  than  at  any  other.  Unusually  coarse 
plants  should  be  cut  a little  earlier;  tender  plants  may  be  cut  later. 

• The  plants  from  which  it  is  desired  to  make  silage  may  be  har- 
vested and  brought  in  imediately  to  the  ensilage  cutter,  cut  up  and 
poured  into  the  silo;  or  they  may  be  allowed  to  lie  in  the  field  a 
day  and  become  wilted.  Pea  vines  do  better  when  allowed  to  wilt, 
and  thus  get  rid  of  part  of  the  large  amount  of  moisture  they  con- 
tain. 

The  silo  may  be  filled  as  rapidly  as  possible,  or  it  may  be  filled 
slowly.  Several  days  may  intervene  at  any  time  in  the  operation 
without  serious  consequences.  It  is  best  to  cut  the  silage  into 
small  pieces  to  make  it  pack  down  better,  and  to  aid  in  removing 
it  from  the  silo.  Half  to  three-quarters  of  an  inch  is  a good  length 
to  cut  it.  It  must  be  well  packed  down  in  the  silo,  and  to  accom- 
plish this  it  is  the  best  plan  to  have  a man  in  the  silo  while  it  is 
being  filled.  He  should  be  careful  to  see  that  the  silage  is  well 
packed  around  the  corners  and  sides,  for  it  is  there  that  air  is  most 
likely  to  get  to  it  and  spoil  it. 


8 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


How  to  Cover  the  Silage  to  Render  it  Air  Tight. 

More  questions  have  been  asked  me  on  this  point  than  on  any  other 
relating  to  the  subject.  It  is  not  absolutely  necessary  ta  cover  the 
silage  at  all.  Of  course,  when  no  covering  is  put  on,  there  will 
certainly  be  a few  inches  of  spoiled  silage  at  the  top.  This  layer 
of  spoiled  silage  acts  as  a sort  of  cover  to  that  below,  preventing 
the  air  from  penetrating  to  any  great  depth.  But  if  it  is  desired 
to  prevent  this  spoiling  even  of  the  top  layer,  it  may  be  done  quite 
successfully  by  putting  on  a layer  of  boards,  then  a layer  of  tarred 
paper,  then  another  layer  of  boards.  It  used  to  be  thought  that  it 
is  necessary  to  weight  the  silage  down,  but  this  practice  has  been 
largely  abandoned.  All  except  the  top  is  already  weighted  with 
the  weight  of  that  above  it.  Some  recommend  wetting  the  top  of 
the  silage  when  the  silo  is  full.  This  helps  to  form  a mold  that 
protects  the  silage. 

Precautions  in  Taking  Silage  Out  of  the  Silo. 

One  may  begin  feeding  silage  as  soon  as  the  silo  is  filled,  or  it 
may  be  kept  for  several  weeks  or  months.  This  much  must  be  re- 
membered, however,  in  taking  it  out:  freshly  uncovered  silage  will 
spoil  in  a short  time  if  left  exposed  to  the  air.  In  order  to  pre- 
vent the  silage  from  spoiling  as  it  is  being  fed,  it  is  therefore  nec- 
essary to  feed  off  the  whole  top  surface  every  day.  This  is  the 
reason  for  constructing  silos  that  are  very  tall;  we  thus  have  a 
small  surface  from  which  we  can  remove  the  entire  surface  in  the 
ordinary  course  of  the  day’s  feeding.  This  leads  us  naturally  to 
the 

Form  of  the  Silo. 

A silo  should  be  built  of  such  form  that  in  feeding  out  the  silage 
at  least  two  inches  of  silage  shall  be  removed  from  the  whole  ex- 
posed surface  every  day.  Experience  has  demonstrated  that  a 
depth  of  less  than  twTenty  or  twenty-four  feet  is  not  advisable,  and 
thirty  to  thirty-six  feet  is  better.  Ensilage  packs  down  and  keeps 
better  in  a deep  silo  than  in  a shallow  one.  Its  other  dimensions 
must  be  governed  by  the  amount  of  stock  to  be  fed  from  it.  A 
cow,  given  proper  quantities  of  other  food,  will  eat  approximately 
a cubic  foot  of  ensilage  per  day.  And  as  two  inches  of  silage 
should  be  removed  from  the  silo  a day,  we  may  estimate  six  square 
feet  to  each  cow  as  the  largest  surface  we  can  safely  give  the  silage. 
When  the  number  of  stock  to  be  fed  is  small,  we  can  remedy  the 


Bulletin  H. — November,  189 i^. 


9 


difficulty  by  putting  partitions  in  our  silo  and  feeding  out  one  side 
at  a time.  It  should  be  remembered  that  a large  silo  is  cheaper 
than  a small  one  when  we  take  into  account  the  difference  of  their 
holding  capacities.  A farmer  having  twenty  head  of  stock  (cows 
and  horses)  to  feed  should  partition  his  silo  off  into  compartments 
not  larger  than  120  square  feet  floor  area.  Sheep  and  hogs  eat 
much  less,  and  hence  three  or  four  should  be  reckoned  as  one. 

Silos  were  formerly  built  of  a rectangular  pattern,  but  it  is  now 
known  that  a round  silo  is  less  difficult  to  construct,  and  is  cheaper. 
The  principal  difficulty  in  the  construction  of  a silo  is  to  build  a 
wall  that  will  not  bend  under  the  pressure  of  the  silage,  and  thus 
open  up  small  crevices  at  the  corners.  Round  silos  do  not  present 
this  difficulty.  A round  silo  may  have  2x4  studding,  the  circular 
lining  holding  the  walls  from  giving  way.  The  walls  of  a rectan- 
gular silo,  however,  must  be  very  strong;  the  studding  for  a rect- 
angular silo  20  feet  high  should  be  2x10.  If  it  be  higher  the 
studding  should  be  2x12.  Fig.  2 shows  how  the  corners  of  a silo 
may  be  constructed  so  that  there  will  be  little  danger  from  crevices 
at  that  point. 

Location  of  the  Silo. 

Ensilage  is  heavy  material,  hence  the  silo  should  be  located  near 
the  place  where  it  is  to  be  fed.  When  the  stock  are  arranged  on 
two  sides  of  an  alley,  it  is  quite  convenient  to  have  the  door  of  the 
silo  at  one  end  of  the  alley. 

The  cost  of  the  silo  will  be  considerably  smaller  if  there  is  room 
for  it  inside  the  barn.  It  is  not  then  necessary  to  put  any  kind  of 
siding  on  the  outside  of  the  studding  of  the  silo,  and  no  roof  will 
be  needed.  But  if  the  barn  has  not  the  room  in  it,  the  silo  is  best 
located  near  one  side  of  the  barn,  so  that  by  cutting  a door  through 
the  barn  wall  you  have  a door  to  your  silo.  Do  not  place  the  silo 
as  a leanto;  that  is,  do  not  make  the  wall  of  the  barn  serve  as  one 
side  of  the  silo.  You  will  have  endless  trouble  in  construction  if 
you  do;  and  when  it  is  done  the  pressure  of  the  ensilage  will  tend 
to  open  a crevice  where  the  silo  joins  the  barn.  Build  the  silo 
just  as  if  it  stood  out  by  itself,  except  that  you  need  not  put  any 
siding  on  the  side  that  is  against  the  barn.  A silo  built  as  a leanto 
costs  more  than  one  built  as  if  it  were  not  near  any  other  structure. 

Comparative  Merits  of  Wooden,  Stone  and  Metal  Silos. 

The  early  silos  were  usually  holes  in  the  ground  lined  with  stone 
and  mortar.  For  convenience  in  getting  the  silage  out  of  the  silo 


10 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


it  soon  became  the  practice  to  build  them  partly  above  ground; 
and  it  being  much  more  convenient  to  line  this  upper  portion  with 
wood,  it  was  soon  discovered  that  the  silage  kept  as  well  in  contact 
with  wood  as  with  the  cement  and  stone.  The  silo  then  emerged 
from  under  ground,  and  is  now  nearly  always,  at  least  in  this  coun- 
try, built  wholly  above  ground.  It  also  came  to  be  recognized 
that  since  a wooden  silo  keeps  the  silage  as  well  as  one  of  stone, 
and  since  the  wooden  one  is  much  cheaper,  a stone  silo  is  an  ex- 
pensive luxury.  There  are  very  few  stone  silos  in  this  country. 
A few  farmers  in  the  extreme  northern  states  have  built  them  with 
the  idea  of  protecting  the  silage  from  freezing,  which  is  an  import- 
ant item;  but  it  is  probably  as  easy  to  accomplish  this  with  a 
wooden  wall  as  with  a wall  of  stone.  If  the  inner  lining  of  the 
silo  be  made  of  two  layers  of  boards  with  tarred  paper  between 
them,  and  the  siding  without  be  nailed  to  sheeting  with  a layer  of 
building  paper  between  the  siding  and  the  sheeting,  there  will  not 
be  any  danger  in  this  climate  from  freezing. 

Furthermore,  it  has  been  learned  that  the  juices  that  are  found 
in  the  ensilage  attack  the  cement  of  a stone  silo,  gradually  eating 
it  away.  The  same  is  true  of  metal  linings;  they  cannot  withstand 
the  chemical  action  of  the  acids  of  the  silage  juices.  Even  if  they 
be  heavily  painted,  the  paint  will  get  scratched  off  in  places,  leav- 
ing the  metal  exposed. 

It  is  pretty  well  settled,  then,  that  wooden  silos  are,  in  the  long 
run,  the  best,  as  well  as  the  most  economical. 

The  Difficulty  With  Wooden  Silos,  and  How  to  Overcome  It. 

The  one  difficulty  with  wooden  silos  is  the  rotting  of  the  wood. 
It  has  already  been  stated  that  decay  and  change  in  animal  and 
vegetable  matter  is  due  to  the  growth  of  small  organisms  in  the 
decaying  or  changing  substance;  the  organisms  that  cause  the  rot- 
ting of  wood  thrive  besf  in  wood  that  is  moderately  moist.  They 
do  not  develop  in  wood  that  is  very  dry  or  very  wet.  Now  the 
silage  contains  a great  deal  of  water  which,  in  the  lower  part  of  the 
mass,  presses  out  and  is  absorbed  by  the  wooden  walls.  The  ob- 
ject sought,  then,  is  so  to  construct  the  walls  that  as  little  as  pos- 
sible of  the  wood  will  become  wet,  and  so  as  to  allow  that  which 
must  get  wet  to  get  thoroughly  wet  in  a short  time,  and  to  dry  out 
again  as  readily  when  the  silage  is  removed.  These  may  all  be  ac- 
complished by  constructing  the  lining  of  the  silo  of  two  layers 


11 


Bulletin  11±. — November , 189  h 


of  boards  with  a layer  of  tarred  paper  between  the  layers,  each 
layer  of  boards  being  heavily  tarred  on  the  side  that  lies  against 
the  paper.  The  first  layer  may  have  the  tar  applied  after  the  boards 
are  nailed  on;  the  boards  of  the  second  layer  must  have  the  tar  ap- 
plied to  them  in  time  for  it  to  dry  before  they  are  put  on.  The 
tar  used  should  be  coal  tar,  boiled  till  it  is  not  sticky  when  cold, 
and  it  should  be  applied  hot. 

With  the  lining  constructed  as  here  indicated,  and  with  proper 
ventilation  between  the  siding  and  the  lining,  there  is  little  danger 
from  rotting  of  the  wood  in  the  walls.  How  to  secure  this  ventila- 
tion, as  well  as  how  to  prevent  rotting  of  the  lining  where  it  touches 
the  sills,  will  be  explained  under  “Sils  for  Rectangular  Silos.” 

The  Foundation. 

This  should  consist  of  stone  or  brick,  laid  in  mortar,  and  should 
be  about  eight  inches  high.  When  ready  to  lay  the  sills,  cover 
the  foundation  wall  with  cement  and  lay  the  sills  in  this.  The 
sills  should  first  have  their  lower  side  and  the  side  next  the  lining 
covered  with  coal  tar.  The  top  and  outer  side  of  the  sills  should 
not  be  covered  with  tar,  for  it  would  prevent  their  drying  out  when 
moisture  soaks  into  them,  as  it  is  almost  sure  to  do  to  some  extent. 
The  inner  side  of  the  foundation  wall  should  also  be  lined  with 
cement,  but  this  should  not  be  done  till  the  lining  is  on,  so  that  the 
cement  may  be  put  on  flush  with  the  boards  of  the  lining.  (See 
Figs.  3 and  4.) 

The  Floor. 

It  is  not  absolutely  necessary  to  have  a floor  in  a silo.  But  when 
there  is  no  floor  there  is  danger  from  the  depredations  of  rats  and 
mice.  There  is  also  less  difficulty  in  preserving  the  ensilage  at  the 
bottom  of  the  silo  when  it  has  a good  floor  under  it.  In  making  a 
silo  floor,  first  smooth  down  the  ground  and  pack  it  well  with  a 
maul  or  something  of  the  kind.  Then  cover  the  ground  about 
three  or  four  inches  deep  with  cement,  made  by  either  of  the  fol- 
lowing methods: 

First.  American  hydraulic  cement,  one  part;  sand,  two  parts; 
broken  stone  (not  over  two  inches  in  diameter),  three  parts. 

Second.  Portland  cement,  one  part;  sand,  three  parts;  broken 
stone,  five  to  seven  parts. 

Third.  Portland  cement,  one  part;  sand,  two  and  one-half  parts; 
gravel,  three  parts;  broken  stone,  five  parts. 


12 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station . 


Mixing  the  Cement.  — Take  about  half  the  sand  to  be  used  and 
spread  it  evenly  in  the  mortar  box;  sprinkle  the  cement  over  it; 
then  add  the  remainder  of  the  sand.  Mix  thoroughly  with  a hoe. 
It  is  important  that  the  mixing  be  well  done.  Next,  wet  the  mass 
and  stir  the  water  in  well.  The  amount  of  water  used  depends  on 
the  kind  of  cement  used;  Portland  cement  requires  a little  less  than 
half  as  much  water  as  the  weight  of  the  cement  added.  Other  ce- 
ments require  a little  more  than  half  as  much  water  as  cement. 
After  this  is  accomplished,  add  the  broken  stone  and  mix  it  up 
thoroughly  with  the  mortar.  The  broken  stone  should  be  thor- 
oughly wetted  before  being  added,  to  prevent  it  from  absorbing 
moisture  from  the  mortar.  Especially  is  this  the  case  if  the  broken 
stone  be  brickbats  or  other  porous  material. 

The  floor  should  not  be  put  in  till  the  silo  is  completed,  as  it 
would  require  a day  or  two  to  set,  and  there  would  be  danger  of 
breaking  the  floor  by  letting  heavy  timbers  fall  on  it. 

In  laying  the  floor  spread  the  mortar  evenly  over  the  ground  and 
pack  it  down  with  a maul  or  pestle. 

The  surface  of  the  floor  should  be  about  two  inches  higher  than 
the  ground  without. 

The  cement  for  lining  the  inside  of  the  foundation  wall,  and  in 
which  to  lay  the  sills,  may  be  made  by  mixing  one  part  cement, 
one  part  quick  lime,  and  four  parts  sand.  Add  sufficient  water  to 
make  a mortar  of  good  workable  consistency. 

Construction  of  a Round  Silo. 

Having  decided  on  a round  silo,  and  having  the  foundation  made 
accordingly,  the  next  thing  to  consider  is  the  sills.  These  may  be 
made  of  2x4  scantling,  cut  into  lengths  to  correspond  to  the  dis- 
tance between  the  studding.  This  distance  should  be  about  one 
foot.  These  short  pieces  should  be  cut  on  a radius  of  the  silo, 
so  that  the  edges  that  come  together  will  match.  That  is,  the  line 
of  contact  between  each  two  pieces  of  the  sill  should  point  toward 
the  center  of  the  silo.  The  studding  should  then  be  placed  in  the 
center  of  each  of  these  pieces,  so  that  the  lining  will  not  be  in  con- 
tact with  the  sill  except  at  the  center  of  each  piece  of  the  sill. 
These  pieces  should  be  firmly  spiked  together,  and  the  whole  laid 
in  cement  mortar,  and,  as  before  stated,  the  sills  should  have  a coat 
of  coal  tar  applied  to  the  under  and  the  inner  sides. 


Bulletin  1J±. — November , 189 1^. 


13 


Studding. — The  studding  may  be  of  2x4  scantling  placed  one 
foot  apart.  It  is  not  necessary  to  get  studding  as  long  as  the  silo 
is  high;  short  lengths  may  be  spliced.  For  a silo  thirty  feet  high 
sixteen  foot  pieces  and  fourteen  foot  pieces  may  be  spliced  together. 
The  plates  may  be  made  similar  to  the  sills,  except  that  the  joints 
should  come  at  the  studding  instead  of  between  them. 

Lining. — The  boards  used  for  lining  in  a circular  silo  should  be 
not  more  than  one-half  inch  thick,  because  they  must  be  bent  in 
putting  on.  They  may  be  rabbeted  like  ordinary  shiplap,  but  not 
tongued  and  grooved.  Common  inch  fencing  lumber  split  into  half 
inch  boards  makes  very  good  lining.  It  is  not  necessary,  though 
it  is  desirable,  to  have  the  boards  rabbeted.  After  the  first  layer 
of  the  lining  is  on  a good  coat  of  coal  tar,  boiled  till  it  is  not  sticky 
when  cold,  should  be  applied  to  it.  A layer  of  tarred  paper  should 
then  be  tacked  to  the  tarred  boards.  This  paper  should  then  be 
covered  with  another  layer  of  boards  that  have  been  tarred  on  the 
side  that  goes  against  the  paper.  A good  method  of  tarring  these 
boards  is  to  lay  them  across  the  tar  vat  as  it  stands  on  the  fire,  and 
as  one  man  draws  the  board  across  another  applies  the  hot  tar  with 
an  ordinary  broom.  All  the  tar  used  in  constructing  a silo  should 
be  applied  hot  in  order  that  it  may  soak  into  the  pores  of  the  wood 
better. 

The  lining  should  not  be  carried  clear  up  to  the  plate;  a space 
of  a few  inches  should  be  left  to  allow  of  ventilation  between  the 
lining  and  the  siding. 

Care  should  be  taken  to  see  that  the  two  layers  of  the  lining- 
break  joints,  as  otherwise  there  might  be  air  holes  left  that  would 
spoil  a lot  of  silage. 

Siding.  — If  the  silo  is  built  inside  another  building  no  siding 
will  be  necessary;  but  if  it  is  not  in  another  building  it  may  be 
sided  up  as  any  other  building  would  be.  In  many  of  the  northern 
states  where  the  cold  is  extreme,  silos  are  usually  sheeted  outside 
as  for  shingling,  and  then  a layer  of  building  paper  and  a layer  of 
siding  nailed  to  this.  This  protects  the  silage  from  freezing. 
Freezing  does  not  hurt  silage  particularly,  but  it  makes  it  awkward 
to  get  out  of  the  silo  sometimes,  and  might  also  injure  the  silo  by 
the  expanding  of  the  ice  as  it  forms. 

Roof.  — An  ordinary  roof  is  all  that  is  required.  If  the  silo  is 
inside  the  barn  no  covering  is  needed.  If  the  silo  is  outside,  and 


14 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


it  thus  becomes  necessary  to  cover  it  with  a roof,  a ventilator 
should  be  put  in  the  roof.  This  will  aid  the  ventilation  between 
the  siding  and  lining,  and  will  help  the  silo  to  dry  out  when  the 
silage  is  removed.  Either  a ridge  or  a round  roof  may  be  put  on 
a round  silo.  The  round  roof  will  probably  require  less  mechanical 
ingenuity  to  construct. 

The  following  directions  for  roofing  a round  silo  are  taken  from 
the  annual  report  of  the  Wisconsin  station: 

“No  rafters  are  required  for  silos  eighteen  feet  or  less  in  diameter. 
For  the  roof  of  small  silos  a circle  may  be  sawed  out  of  2x8s,  and 
the  pieces  spiked  together  in  two  layers,  the  pieces  breaking  joints, 
and  it  should  have  an  outside  diameter  of  five  to  seven  feet,  ac- 
cording to  the  size  of  the  silo.  With  this  type  of  roof  the  roof 
boards  may  be  cut  the  length  which  would  be  required  for  rafters, 
and  then  sawed  diagonally  from  corner  to  corner,  leaving  the  two 
ends  of  such  widths  as  will  correspond  to  the  size  of  the  two  circles 
made  by  the  opposite  ends,  and  this  should  be  done  at  the  mill. 
The  circular  frame  is  supported  in  place  and  the  roof  boards  nailed 
directly  to  it  and  to  the  plate,  when  the  whole  becomes  self-sup- 
porting.” 

Larger  silos  may  be  roofed  in  the  same  way  by  using  two  or 
three  circles.  These  boards  may  then  be  covered  with  ordinary 
shingles. 

Windows  for  Filling  the  Silo. — A window  should  be  left 
near  the  top  of  the  silo,  in  a convenient  place  for  putting  in  the 
silage.  Be  careful  to  get  it  large  enough  to  admit  the  carrier  that 
takes  the  silage  from  the  cutter  into  the  silo.  If  desired,  another 
window  may  be  made  lower  down,  through  which  the  lower  part 
of  the  silo  may  be  filled. 

Doors. — Some  silos  have  a narrow  door  extending  from  top  to 
bottom.  Others  have  a door  at  the  bottom  with  a chute  extending 
up  from  it  to  the  top,  where  there  is  another  door  for  one  to  enter 
in  getting  out  the  silage.  The  chute  is  made  as  follows: 

To  pieces  of  2x8  or  2x10  are  nailed  to  the  inside  of  the  silo 
wall  before  the  second  layer  of  the  wall  is  put  on,  one  on  either 
side  of  the  door,  and  extending  from  top  to  bottom  of  the  silo. 
Boards  are  nailed  to  these  so  as  to  project  about  two  inches  beyond 
their  edges,  as  shown  in  Fig.  1.  As  the  silo  is  filled,  the  boards 
forming  the  wall  of  the  chute  next  the  silage  are  laid  in  in  two 


Bulletin  1J±. — November , 189 1^. 


15 


layers,  with  a layer  of  tarred  paper  between  them.  As  the  silage 
is  removed  in  feeding,  these  boards  are  taken  out.  The  paper  be- 
tween them  should  be  in  rather  small  pieces,  in  order  that  it  may 
not  be  in  the  way  in  taking  out  the  silage. 

In  removing  silage  from  the  silo,  it  must  be  remembered  that  any 
of  it  left  exposed  to  the  air  for  a few  days  begins  to  decompose. 
It  is  therefore  necessary  to  feed  off  the  whole  top  layer  every  day  to  a 


Fig.  1. — Silage  chute,  a,  a , Timbers,  2x8  or  2x10,  spiked  to  inside  of  Avail  before  sec- 
ond layer  of  lining  is  put  on.  b,  b,  Inch  boards  nailed  to  a,  a,  and  projecting  beyond 
them,  c,  c,  Two  layers  of  boards  with  tarred  paper  betAveen,  laid  in  loosely.  They  are 
held  in  place  only  by  the  pressure  of  the  silage. 


depth  of  at  least  two  inches,  and  as  much  deeper  as  your  stock 
need. 

The  silage  to  be  fed  is  raked  up  with  a fork  and  dropped  into 
the  chute,  falling  to  the  door  below,  where  it  is  taken  to  the  feed 
troughs. 

If  the  door  be  made  to  extend  from  the  top  to  the  bottom,  it  may 
be  made  just  as  described  above,  being  dropped  in  against  two 
studding,  instead  of  against  the  chute  timbers.  In  this  case  boards 
should  be  nailed  across  the  door  every  few  feet,  on  the  outside  of 
the  silo,  to  prevent  the  pressure  of  the  silage  from  spreading  the 
door.  In  case  the  chute  is  used,  it  is  necessary  to  provide  some 
means  of  climbing  down  into  the  silo  and  out  again.  Thick  boards 
beveled  on  the  upper  side  and  tacked  to  the  wall  on  the  inside  near 
the  chute  serve  this  purpose  very  well. 


16 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


Construction  of  Rectangular  Silo. 

The  construction  of  a rectangular  silo  differs  from  that  of  a cir- 
cular one  in  the  following  particulars: 

In  the  rectangular  silo  the  studding  must  be  strong  enough  to 
support  the  pressure  of  the  ensilage  without  bending  to  any  ap- 
preciable extent. 


I 


Fig.  2. — Showing  cross  section  of  the  studding  at  the  corner  of  a rectangular  silo.  Half 
inch  bolts  (a)  should  be  used  to  hold  the  2x4  and  2x6  together.  These  bolts  should  not 
be  more  than  18  inches  apart  from  the  bottom  up  to  about  the  middle  of  the  studding. 
Above  the  middle  they  may  be  two  feet  apart;  they  may  be  reinforced  by  thirty  penny 
wire  spikes. 

The  corners  must  be  constructed  with  especial  care  to  prevent 
formation  of  crevices  and  consequent  rotting  of  silage  at  those 
points. 

The  sills  must  be  strong. 

The  lining  should  be  made  of  inch  boards  rather  than  half-inch. 

Studding.  — The  studding  for  a rectangular  silo  20  feet  high 
should  be  2x10,  20  feet  long,  not  more  than  16  inches  apart  (on 


Bulletin  1J+. — November , 1891^. 


IT 


centers).  2x12  should  be  used  if  the  silo  is  to  be  24  to  30  feet 
high. 

Sills  for  Rectangular  Silo.  — The  sills  should  be  two  inches 
narrower  than  the  studding,  and  should  be  flush  with  the  outside. 
This  will  leave  a two  inch  space  between  the  sill  and  the  lining. 
The  studding  should  be  cut  so  as  to  project  downward  to  the  lower 
edge  of  the  sill.  The  sills  may  be  made  of  two  pieces  of  two  inch 
stuff  spiked  together,  and  cut  at  the  ends  so  as  to  lap.  If  the  silo 
is  a large  one,  it  is  necessary  to  build  in  some  iron  rods  into  the 
foundation  wall,  letting  them  project  through  the  sills;  this  will 
prevent  the  great  pressure  of  the  ensilage  from  bending  the  sills. 
Make  them  of  three-quarter  iron,  and  let  them  be  about  four  feet 
apart. 

After  the  lining  is  put  on,  fill  the  two  inch  space  between  the 
sill  and  the  lining  about  half  full  of  a mixture  of  gravel  and  coal 
tar,  boiled  till  hard  when  cold  (see  Fig.  3).  This  will  help  to  pre- 
vent rotting  of  the  sill  and  the  lining  at  this  point. 

Corners.  — It  is  quite  difficult  to  construct  the  corners  of  a silo 
so  as  to  exclude  the  air.  The  great  pressure  of  the  silage  tends  to 
spread  the  corners.  This  may  be  prevented  by  arranging  the  stud- 
ding at  the  corners  as  shown  in  Fig.  2. 

Ventilation  Between  Lining  and  Siding. 

Directions  have  already  been  given  in  connection  with  putting  on 
the  lining  for  leaving  a space  of  a few  inches  at  the  top.  To  com- 
plete the  means  of  ventilation  bore  a large  auger  hole  through  the 
siding  between  each  two  studding  near  the  sill.  These  holes  should 
be  covered  with  wire  gauze  to  prevent  vermin  from  getting  in.  The 
space  on  the  inside  at  the  top  should  likewise  be  thus  covered,  to 
prevent  silage  from  dropping  in  when  filling  the  silo.  If  the  lining 
is  put  on  before  the  siding,  the  holes  should  be  bored  in  the  first 
board  of  the  siding  before  it  is  put  on,  so  that  the  wire  gauze  may 
be  nailed  over  the  inner  side  of  the  holes.  It  will  thus  be  out  of 
the  way  and  will  not  be  so  liable  to  be  knocked  off.  There  should 
also  be  a ventilator  in  the  roof  of  the  silo  to  aid  in  the  circulation 
of  the  air.  The  object  of  this  ventilation  is  to  keep  the  boards 
dry,  so  that  they  will  not  rot.  In  very  cold  weather,  when  there 
would  be  danger  of  the  silage  freezing,  the  ventilating  holes  should 
be  stopped. 


18 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station . 


Cost  of  a Silo. 

A good  silo  costs  less  than  barn  room  to  store  the  same  weight 
of  hay  would  cost.  And  as  silage  is  equal  to  hay  in  feeding  value, 
and  much  more  of  it  can  be  produced  to  the  acre,  it  follows  that 
silage  is  a much  more  economical  feed  than  hay.  Prof.  King,  of 
the  Wisconsin  station,  thinks  that  the  time  will  come  when  we 
shall  feed  our  dairy  cows  silage  the  year  round,  in  preference  to 
pasturing  them,  for  it  can  be  made  more  economical  to  do  so,  turn- 
ing them  out  in  the  meadow  after  their  feed  of  silage  has  been 
eaten  to  allow  them  to  take  exercise  and  to  distribute  the  manure 
over  the  meadow. 

The  cost  of  a silo  per  ton  of  capacity  varies  with  the  capacity. 
The  cost  does  not  increase  as  rapidly  as  the  size.  A 100-ton 
silo  should  cost  about  $2  to  $2.50  per  ton  capacity.  A 400-ton  silo 
should  cost  about  $1  to  $1.50  per  ton  capacity.  It  is  therefore 
cheaper  to  build  a large  silo,  if  you  have  feed  enough  to  fill  it  and 
stock  enough  to  eat  the  feed. 

Partitions  in  Silos. 

As  already  stated,  the  floor  area  of  a silo  should  not  exceed  six 
square  feet  to  each  animal  to  be  fed  from  it,  so  that  in  feeding  it 
off  no  silage  need  be  left  exposed  to  the  air  for  more  than  a day. 
If  it  is  desired  to  feed  a small  number  of  animals  from  a large  silo, 
it  may  be  conveniently  done  by  dividing  the  silo  into  compartments 
of  any  size  desired,  by  means  of  partitions  put  in  after  the  silo  is 
finished.  These  partitions  may  be  made  by  putting  in  2x4  scant- 
ling fifteen  inches  apart,  with  a layer  of  tarred  paper  and  a layer 
of  boards  on  each  side.  As  the  silage  is  removed  from  one  side, 
braces  must  be  put  in  extending  from  the  partition  to  the  opposite 
wall  to  keep  the  partition  from  giving  way  under  the  pressure  of 
the  ensilage  in  the  other  compartment. 

There  need  be  no  fear  of  leaving  a silo  full  of  silage  as  long  as 
may  be  necessary.  Silos  have  been  opened  two  years  after  they 
were  filled,  and  the  silage  was  apparently  as  good  as  it  ever  was. 
Of  course  there  is  apt  to  be  some  silage  rotten,  especially  at  the 
top,  and  at  the  corners  unless  these  be  well  constructed.  But  even 
if  ten  per  cent,  of  it  spoils,  it  is  still  cheaper  feed  than  hay.  If  the 
silage  be  well  packed  down  as  the  silo  is  filled,  and  the  top  be  cov- 
ered well  with  a layer  of  tarred  paper  between  two  layers  of 
boards,  or  even  if  the  silage  have  no  covering  at  all  and  be  kept 


Bulletin  1J±. — November , 189 1±. 


19 


wet  by  pouring  water  upon  it,  the  loss  will  be  only  an  inch  or  two 
of  the  material  at  the  top  of  the  mass. 


Fig.  3. — Showing  the  construction  and  ventilation  of  the  walls  of  a rectangular  silo. 
The  sills  are  two  inches  narrower  than  the  studding  to  leave  air  space  between  sills  and 
lining.  A is  two  inches  of  mortar,  made  by  stirring  sand  into  coal  tar,  boiled  until  it  is 
hard  when  cold.  B is  a bolt  anchoring  the  sill  to  the  foundation.  These  bolts  should  be 
placed  about  four  feet  apart.  C,  ventilator  between  the  studding. 


Fig.  4. — Showing  construction  of  round  silo.  Sills,  2x4,  cut  into  sections,  toe-nailed 
together,  and  bedded  in  mortar.  Plates,  the  same,  spiked  to  top  of  studding.  Studding, 
2x4,  one  foot  apart.  A shows  ventilator  between  the  studding.  Auger  holes  are  bored  at 
bottom  between  studding,  and  the  boards  lack  a few  inches  of  reaching  plate  at  top  inside. 
Both  sets  of  openings  are  covered  with  wire  screens. 


. 


. 


, * 


WASHINGTON  STATE  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE  AND 
SCHOOL  OF  SCIENCE. 


Experiment  Station, 

PULLMAN,  WASHINGTON. 


Bulletin  15. 


DEPARTMENT  OF  CHEMISTRY. 

SUGAR  BEETS  IN  WASHINGTON. 

By  Elton  Fulmer,  A.  M. 


All  Bulletins  of  this  Station  are  sent  free  to  residents  of  the  State. 

Persons  desiring  their  names  on  our  mailing  list  should  address, 

PRESIDENT  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE, 

PULLMAN,  WASHINGTON. 


O.  C.  WHITE,  STATE  PRINTER,  OLYMPIA. 


SUGAR,  BEETS  IN  WASHINGTON. 


BY  ELTON  FULMER,  A.  M. 


The  work  detailed  in  the  following  pages  was  undertaken  for  the 
purpose  of  obtaining  some  definite  information  concerning  the 
adaptability  of  Washington  soil  and  climatic  conditions  to  the  pro- 
duction of  sugar  beets  suitable  for  use  in  manufacturing  sugar. 
This  question  has  been  agitated  in  different  sections  of  the  state  for 
several  years,  and  a considerable  unorganized  experimental  work 
has  been  performed.  Because  of  the  lack  of  general  organization, 
and  because  of  uncertain  conditions  attending  much  of  the  work, 
the  results  obtained  previous  to  last  year  have  been  of  little  practi- 
cal value  to  the  state  at  large. 

The  agricultural  conditions  that  have  prevailed  in  the  state  dur- 
ing the  past  two  years  have  also  furnished  an  incentive  to  this  work, 
inasmuch  as  they  seemed  to  demand  experimentation  along  lines 
that  would  aid  in  bringing  about  a greater  diversity  in  farming. 
Experience  in  this  and  other  countries  has  shown  very  conclusively 
the  superior  value  of  the  sugar  beet  as  a factor  of  diversified  farm- 
ing. Knowing  something  of  the  wholesome  effects  of  sugar  beets 
in  a crop  rotation,  and  of  the  stimulation  of  other  industries  result- 
ing from  the  establishment  of  factories  for  the  manufacture  of 
sugar  from  beets,  the  present  seemed  a very  opportune  time  to  be- 
gin a work  that  should  demonstrate  what  we  may  expect  in  the 
future  from  an  industry  that  has  wrought  such  salutary  results  in 
other  places. 

All  of  the  work  carried  on  in  this  state  previous  to  1894  in  con- 
nection with  the  sugar  beet  was  under  the  direction  of  the  United 
States  department  of  agriculture.  From  the  bulletins  of  the  division 
of  chemistry,  published  by  Dr.  H.  W.  Wiley,  we  glean  the  follow- 
ing facts  concerning  the  sample  beets  sent  to  him  from  our  state 
for  analysis:  In  1890,  one  sample  from  Lewis  county,  which  showed 
16  per  cent,  sugar  and  84.2  purity.  In  1891,  eleven  samples  from 
Lewis,  Snohomish,  Spokane,  Stevens,  Whatcom  and  Whitman  coun- 


4 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


ties,  which  gave  averages  as  follows:  Weight  18  ounces,  sugar 
15.2  per  cent.,  purity  83.9.  In  1892,  fourteen  samples  from  Doug- 
las, Spokane,  Stevens  and  Whitman  counties:  Average  weight  18 
ounces,  sugar  15.2  per  cent.,  purity  76.8.  In  1893,  153  analyses 
from  Asotin,  Columbia,  Douglas,  Kittitas,  Spokane,  Stevens,  Walla 
Walla,  Whitman  and  Yakima  counties,  which  averaged  12.7  per 
cent,  sugar. 

In  order  to  awaken  as  widespread  an  interest  as  possible  in  last 
year’s  work,  a preliminary  bulletin  was  issued  in  the  winter,  which 
briefly  reviewed  the  history  and  development  of  the  beet  sugar  in- 
dustry in  this  and  in  other  countries.  In  this  bulletin  the  proposed 
work  of  the  year  was  outlined,  and  farmers  were  invited  and  urged 
to  cooperate  with  us.  We  quote  from  page  14,  as  follows: 

“The  agricultural  experiment  stations  exist  for  the  purpose  of  giving 
aid  to  and  codperating  with  the  farmers  in  matters  of  this  kind.  The 
laboratory  of  the  Washington  station  is  well  equipped  for  doing  any  work 
connected  with  the  analysis  of  sugar  beets  or  their  products,  and  the 
chemical  department  is  ready  to  give  any  aid  possible.  In  a word,  it  is 
our  earnest  desire  to  form  a partnership  with  all  the  farmers  of  the  state 
who  are  interested  in  this  matter,  the  basis  of  partnership  to  be  as  follows: 
We  agree  to  furnish  seed  and  printed  directions  for  the  culture  of  the 
beet.  We  further  agree  to  pay  transportation  charges  on  all  beets  sent 
to  the  department  for  analysis,  and  to  make  the  analyses  free  of  cost ; to 
preserve  and  correllate  the  data  thus  obtained;  to  print  the  same  in  a 
bulletin,  a copy  of  which  will  be  sent  to  each  farmer.  We  ask  the  farm- 
ers, on  their  part,  to  measure  off  a definite  portion  of  land,  about  10  or  20 
feet  square,  in  which  the  seed  will  be  planted  at  such  time  and  in  such 
manner  as  we  shall  indicate,  as  nearly  as  possible;  to  properly  cultivate 
and  otherwise  care  for  the  beets  during  their  period  of  growth,  according 
to  directions  furnished,  as  nearly  as  possible;  when  the  beets  have  reached 
maturity,  to  select  samples  for  analysis,  at  such  time  and  in  such  manner  as 
we  may  prescribe;  to  send  said  samples  to  us;  to  keep  an  accurate  record  of 
the  kind  of  seed,  time  of  planting,  size  of  plat,  quality  of  soil,  kind  and 
amount  of  cultivation,  etc. ; also,  to  carefully  estimate  the  yield  and  cost 
of  production  per  acre;  and  lastly,  to  furnish  us  with  these  and  all  other 
data  bearing  on  the  subject,  for  publication.” 

In  response  to  this  bulletin,  applications  for  seed  were  received 
from  1015  farmers  living  in  all  parts  of  the  state.  These  applica- 
tions were  all  filled,  the  greater  number  of  them  with  three  varie- 
ties of  seed,  some  with  two,  and  a few  with  only  one.  Our  original 
plan  was  to  furnish  each  applicant  with  three  varieties,  but  was  not 
carried  out  in  all  cases  because  of  an  insufficient  supply.  Seed  was 
sent  to  one  or  more  farmers  in  every  county  except  Okanogan. 


Bulletin  15 — Sugar  Beets. 


5 


In  these  cooperative  tests,  seven  varieties  of  seed  were  used,  as 
follows:  Klein  Wanzlebener,  Yilmorin  Araelioree,  Le  Maire,  Mette, 
Vilmorin  Richest,  Yilmorin  Improved  and  Knauer’s  Imperial.  Of 
these,  the  first  three  were  distributed  in  the  greater  quantities. 
Printed  culture  directions  were  furnished  with  the  seed. 

The  weather  during  the  past  season  was  so  varied  in  different 
sections  of  the  state  that  it  would  be  difficult  to  summarize  the  re- 
ports received  concerning  it.  In  some  places  the  ground  was  so 
wet  and  cold  in  the  spring  that  the  seed  failed  to  germinate. 
Many  experimental  plats  were  ruined  by  high  water.  A large 
number  reported  a good  stand  and  excellent  growth  for  a few 
weeks,  and  then  the  death  of  the  young  plants,  due  to  unusually 
dry  weather  and  hot  winds.  All  the  failures  reported  as  due  to 
climatic  causes  were  attributed  to  an  excess  or  lack  of  water;  but 
it  is  probable  that  the  temperature  was,  in  many  cases,  unfavorable 
to  a healthy  and  normal  growth  of  the  beet,  although  the  reports 
did  not  mention  this  point.  Some  few  failures  were  the  result  of 
stock  depredations.  Judging  from  the  numerous  complaints  re- 
ceived concerning  the  ground  squirrel,  it  seems  quite  probable  that 
.it  may  be  a serious  enemy  to  combat  in  sugar  beet  culture.  It  is 
not  to  be  expected  that  the  sugar  beet  in  Washington  will  escape 
the  ravages  of  insect  enemies.  Early  in  June  it  was  reported  that 
the  flea  beetle  was  threatening  the  young  beet  plants  with  serious 
injury.  We  immediately  issued  press  bulletin  No.  3,  giving  in- 
structions for  fighting  this  and  other  enemies  of  the  beet;  but 
owing  to  an  unavoidable  delay  in  printing,  it  was  sent  out  too  late 
to  be  of  effective  service. 

Early  in  September,  preliminary  arrangements  were  made  for  the 
transportation  of  the  sample  beets  to  the  station,  and  their  subse- 
quent analysis.  The  different  railroads  very  generously  granted 
free  freight  transportation,  thus  greatly  aiding  in  the  work.  At 
every  town  in  which  three  or  more  parties  had  received  seed,  one 
person  was  secured  to  superintend  the  packing  and  shipping  of  the 
samples.  The  time  of  harvesting  and  shipping  was  designated  by 
us  somewhat  arbitrarily,  so  that  we  might  be  able  to  care  for  the 
beets  as  soon  as  received.  This  time  was,  of  course,  selected  with 
reference  to  the  climatic  conditions,  so  that  harvesting  would  not 
occur  before  the  beets  were  matured.  Yet,  in  many  cases  there 
were  very  plain  evidences  of  immaturity,  particularly  with  Western 
Washington  beets,  although  the  majority  of  them  were  not  har- 


6 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


vested  until  November.  Samples  were  received  from  384  different 
parties,  more  than  one-third  of  the  number  who  received  seed,  and 
from  all  the  counties  of  the  state  except  Clarke,  Douglas,  Franklin, 
Kitsap,  Klickitat,  Mason,  Okanogan  and  Thurston. 

The  following  report  blank  was  sent  to  each  man,  to  be  filled  out: 


4.  How  deep  was  ground  plowed? 

5.  Character  of  soil. 

6..  How  much  cultivation  did  the  beets  receive? 

7.  Crop  grown  on  same  ground  preceding  year. 

8.  Distance  between  rows. 

9.  Distance  between  beets  in  the  row. 

10.  Estimated  yield  per  acre. 

11.  Date  of  harvesting. 

12.  Weather  during  growing  season. 

13.  Do  you  think  from  your  experience  this  year  that  you  could  afford 
to  grow  beets  at  $4  per  ton? 

14.  Were  your  beets  troubled  by  insects? 

15.  County. 

16.  Postoffice. 

17.  Name. 

Three  hundred  and  sixty-five  of  these  reports  were  returned  prop- 
erly filled  out,  from  which  the  following  data  was  obtained:  156 
answered  question  13  in  the  affirmative,  67  in  the  negative,  and  142 
gave  no -answer;  127  reported  trouble  from  insects.  Only  a few 
reported  proper  attention  given  the  beets  during  the  growing  sea- 
son, and  the  shape  of  the  samples  received  gave  abundant  evidence 
of  shallow  plowing  and  improper  cultivation.  It  was,  however, 
very  noticeable  that  the  shape  of  the  beet  had  no  apparent  relation 
to  the  sugar  content.  It  has  been  generally  found  true  that  a beet 
showing  many  rootlets  and  having  a scraggy  appearance  is  not  rich 
in  sugar.  Repeated  observations  of  this  point,  made  while  the  an- 
alytical work  was  in  progress,  failed  to  establish  such  a relation. 
In  very  many  instances  beets  that  were  most  unpromising  in  shape 
and  general  appearance  have  shown  both  high  sugar  and  purity. 
Nevertheless,  for  growing  factory  beets,  the  cultivation  must  be  of 


FORM  OF  REPORT. 


( (a) 

3.  Exact  area  of  plats  planted,  ' 'M 


Bulletin  15 — Sugar  Beets. 


7 


a character  that  will  produce  more  regularity  in  shape  and  greater 
smoothness. 

Another  very  significant  fact  that  was  revealed  by  the  analytical 
work  is  worthy  of  note.  Generally  speaking,  a high  specific  grav- 
ity of  a beet  juice  may  indicate  that  it  contains  either  a large  amount 
of  sugar,  or  an  unusual  proportion  of  solids  not  sugar;  which  means 
that  the  beet  is  rich  in  sugar , or  low  in  purity.  With  reference  to 
the  samples  analyzed  last  year,  there  has  been  a direct  relation  be- 
tween the  specific  gravity  of  the  juice  and  the  sugar  percentage;  in 
other  words,  a high  specific  gravity  has  almost  invariably  been  in- 
dicative of  a high  percentage  of  sugar. 

Of  the  different  varieties  of  beets,  the  Klein  Wanzlebener  seems 
to  have  given  the  most  satisfactory  results  in  regard  to  tonnage 
yield,  sugar  content  and  purity.  Yilmorin  Amelioree  stands  next 
in  point  of  excellence.  All  the  other  varieties,  except  Yilmorin 
Improved,  are  about  equal,  but  do  not  give  as  uniform  results  as 
the  two  above  mentioned.  The  Yilmorin  Improved  has  shown  it- 
self to  be  wholly  unadapted  to  our  conditions  of  soil  and  climate. 
All  of  the  beets  grown  from  seed  that  we  received  marked  “Yil- 
morin Improved”  have  shown  uniformly  low  sugar  and  purity,  re- 
gardless of  locality  where  grown.  We  have  some  doubts  of  the 
correctness  of  the  label,  for  this  variety  in  other  states  has  proved 
very  satisfactory;  and,  also,  the  beets  grown  from  this  doubtful 
variety  exhibited  all  the  characteristics  of  the  inferior  sugar  beet 
often  raised  for  stock  feeding.  From  the  character  of  the  samples 
received,  we  conclude  that  the  Klein  Wanzlebener  is  a deep  grow- 
ing variety,  and  requires  deeper  cultivation  than  the  others.  The 
Le  Maire  variety,  if  we  may  judge  from  last  year’s  experience,  is 
more  easily  affected  by  unfavorable  conditions  than  are  the  others. 
A large  majority  of  the  beets  received  were  grown  upon  ground 
that  produced  vegetables  the  preceding  year,  yet  these  garden  spots 
did  not  produce  beets  superior  to  those  grown  upon  new  ground  or 
wheat  land. 

The  total  number  of  samples  analyzed  was  1,700,  coming  from 
27  different  counties  and  101  different  towns.  The  following  pages 
give  the  details  of  the  individual  analyses. 


8 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


EXPLANATION  OF  TERMS  USED. 


The  figures  in  the  column  “ weight”  express  in  pounds  and 
ounces  the  gross  weight  of  the  beet  after  cutting  off  the  tops. 

The  “sugar  in  juice”  is  determined  directly  by  means  of  the 
polariscope,  and  is  expressed  in  per  cent. 

The  “sugar  in  beet”  is  found  by  multiplying  the  per  cent,  of 
sugar  in  the  juice  by  .95  — the  weight  of  the  juice  being  approxi- 
mate 95  per  cent,  of  the  weight  of  the  beet. 

The  purity  is  the  ratio  between  the  sugar  and  the  total  solids  in 
the  juice.  For  example,  if  100  parts  of  solids  contain  80  parts  of 
sugar  and  20  parts  of  non-sugar,  the  co-efficient  of  purity  is  said  to 
be  80. 


ANALYSES  OF  SUGAR  BEETS  PRODUCED  IN  WASHINGTON. 


Bulletin  15 — Sugar  Beets. 


9 


Purity. 


Sugar  in  beet . 


t'^NMOIQO®nOOfflOOC!Ot'NHH®b-l'NNM'#NO)K)HOMin'0'HO> 

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Sugar  in  juice. 


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Character  of 
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Date  of  har- 
vesting   

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ANALYSES  OF  SUGAR  BEETS  PRODUCED  IN  WASHINGTON  — Continued. 


10  Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


Purity. 


Sugar  in  beet . 


too5©eotot-noaonoeoaoo5totot-i>08too5r-<050i05r-i©aonoooTi<i>, 


no'  eo’  no’  r4  cd  i-i  to’  no'  to’  to  no'  eo’  oi  ed  <n  o'  r-i  os’  oi  oi  no  os*  r-i  eo'  in"  ■>#’  oi  Tt<  rji  tj<  r-i  in’  -d  nji 


Sugar  in  juice. 


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Crop  grown 
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Estimated 
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Depth  of 
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Bulletin  15 — Sugar  Beets . 


11 


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ANALYSES  OF  SUGAR  BEETS  PRODUCED  IN  WASHINGTON  — Continued. 


12  Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


Purity. 


Sugar  in  beet ... 


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Bulletin  15 — Sugar  Beets . 


13 


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'22' 


ANALYSES  OF  SUGAR  BEETS  PRODUCED  IN  WASHINGTON— Continued. 


14 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


to  o’  —I  co  oi  t'-’  to  <n"  oo  oo"  i-i  o’  oi  <-<’  ic  oo  ei  >-4  o’  <N  oo  eo  o’  o’  <n’  — i o’  o’  go  ira  rti  o’  -r  eo’  eo 
oooot'i>ao»i>oot''i>aoooooooooi>t^ooooooooi>a5aoooooooooooooooooooooi>ao 

Sugar  in  beet... 

00  © CO  CO  C5  rH  05  l>  h*  ^ 05  rH  lO  CO  00  t>  iH  00  CO  C<l  © rH  © CO  CO  ^ © © N rH  t-  IO  © ^ N 

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Sugar  in  juice.. 

O^WMONlO^OHOWHOTfMb.lOOOlMMNO^OHXWOiM^MIO  i-J  05 

o’  co  o’  o’  co  n H Ttj  co  co  H esi  o’  H rij  H H o'  o’  co  eo 

Weight  of 

gl>  OOONWOt'O^  ONCOOjJjONHOCO'  NONOOHOON^OOOO) 

^HCOO^I  HH  NNIi'i'rHHNHNNNeqN^  rH 

Crop  grown 
on  same 
ground  the 
preceding 

Corn 

Carrots 

Nothing 

Oats 

Potatoes 

Oats 

Cabbage 

Nothing 

Carrots 

Waterin’ ns.. 

Cabbage 

Waterm’ns.. 

Nothing 

Buckwheat, 

Estimated 
yield  per 

14  tons 

15  tons 
5 tons 
20  tons 

81  tons 

11  tons 
81  tons 

12  tons 
8 tons 

8 tons 

Depth  of 
plowing 

8 in. 

10  in. 

5 in. 

4 in. 

7 in. 

8 in. 
7 in. 

10  in. 

7 in. 

6 in. 

7 in. 

5 in. 
14  in. 

Character  of 
soil 

Dark  loam 

Sandy 

Sandy  loam... 
Volcanic  ash.. 

Clay  loam 

Loose  black... 

Clay  loam 

Dark  loam 

It  It 

It  t C 

It  u 

Sandy  loam... 

Bl’ck  alluvial, 

Sandy  loam... 

Bl’ck  alluvial, 

Light  loam 

Sandy  loam... 

Date  of  har- 
vesting   

oo  ic  ;:<£>;  :<o  r-i  icoow^-h 

q o : : o • : o 3?  o o o o o 

o o ; ;o  i ;o  w o o ooo 

Date  of  plant - 
ing 

May  5 

May  10 
Apr.  5 
May  10 

May  1 

May  31 
May  1 

May  7 

May  19 

Apr.  10 

May  19 
May  10 
May  12 

Variety  of  beets  grown. 

Klein  Wanzlebener... 

CC  CC 

CC  Cl 

Cl  CC 

Knauer’s  Imperial 

Vilmorin  Amelioree.. 

“ Richest 

“ Amelioree.. 

Mette 

Klein  Wanzlebener... 

Vilmorin  Amelioree.. 

Klein  Wanzlebener... 

Le  Maire 

Klein  Wanzlebener... 
Vilmorin  Amelioree.. 

Le  Maire 

Mette 

Klein  Wanzlebener... 
Le  Maire 

Name  of  grower  and  postoffice 
address. 

D.  B.  Williams,  Pataha  City 

J.  M.  Williams,  Pataha  City 

R.  R.  Santo,  Pataha  City 

Clyde  Lee,  Yakima  City 

R.  C.  Johnson,  Farmington 

R.  Alderson,  Farmington 

R.  C.  Johnson,  Farmington 

O.  A.  Pelton,  Farmington 

R.  S.  Kingsbury,  Farmington 

It  CC  CC 

CC  CC  CC 

CC  CC  CC 

CC  CC  CC 

L.  E.  Rowe,  Centralia 

L.  F.  Eccles,  Fletcher 

E.  E.  Ellis,  “ 

L.  F.  Eccles,  “ 

Samuel  Glenn,  Fletcher 

Seymour  Shoultes,  Marysville.... 

Bulletin  15 — Sugar  Beets. 


15 


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Vilmorin  Amelioree.. 


ANALYSES  OF  SUGAR  BEETS  PRODUCED  IN  WASHINGTON  — Continued. 


16 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station . 


Purity. 


Sugar  in  beet . 


(NaO'*iaooGior'.i>eciciO'<9<oici>©aot>i9<oiod©<Neoeo(Mio©'<9'oeooioo5<N 


dl--''J<OIOOlCi- MN10CO''ti<NOOO''9i|>aOOCOOr-i<N— ‘ IOMOHlSOMt>MffiOO 
^ in  N H N 6 W ^ ^ ® W M N ai  o>  ^ l<5  ® N N ® h-  N to  1<5  io\o  o’  ■'9?  ft  o’  o’  o’ 


Sugar  in  juice. 


ilOOfHNNNQOO>'9'HHOOMHNmO’9<(»lftOOO'^0'}iO)«(10NK5NtO(»'9' 
I O CO  N M H M Ml  N O M N O O in  lO  in  O oi  « X oci  ao  ® N lO  o'  o’  ft  1C  o o'  ft  o’  ft 


Weight  of 
beet 


Crop  grown 
on  same 
ground  the 
preceding 
year 

Estimated 
yield  per 
acre 

Depth  of 
plowing 

Character  of 
soil 

Date  of  har- 
vesting   

Date  of  plant- 
ing  


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fr 


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Bulletin  15 — Sugar  Beets. 


17 


iCOOMCMOHCOOJ' 
i <M  1C  l>  ©*  ©’  <N*  GO  ©*  i 


• CUO^WOOOCO^O(N«OlCi 


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) <£>*  rfi  (M  rH  CO  <M  CO  CO*  ^ CO  IC  ^ ^*  ^*  CO*  ^*  ^*  rfi  IC  CO*  IC  ^*  <M  lC*  I>  IC  CO*  lC  CO  1C  ic  CO*  1C*  ^ 00*  00*  t>  00*  00*  ^*  1-1  TfJ  1C* 


OWb-OJONOlCHOHlC^COCOb-a^HONOMOCOlCNWNCOONCOOOHlCTjiHlCCOOOQOlCOOOcOOO 
00  l>  Tji  N <M  rfi  CO*  ^*  l>  lC  ^*  CO  IC*  IC  IC*  CO*  lC*  IC*  ^ ^*  CD*  Tfi  cO*  lC  CO*  CO  00*  CO*  ^ CO*  l>  lC  lC  CO*  l>  CO  00*  05*  05*  00*  05*  05*  lC*  lC*  CO*  IC* 


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lb»lC^05ONNC0C0lCHOONlCHO05C0lCNC000HC0^05C0i 


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-2 


ANALYSES  OF  SUGAR  BEETS  PRODUCED-  IN  WASHINGTON— Continued. 


18 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


Bulletin  15 — Sugar  Beets 


19 


ii-HttucoiOicco'’titocoictoeqrHtO' 


ItONOONOWOOt'^M 


> •*#!  co  © o 10  to  - 
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ic  ^ to  co  -<c  cq’  cq"  t>»'  to'  ic  to"  co’  to  ic  1-1  co  -1’  to'  ic  no  io  to  to  o ic  to  ic  ic  io  cq  — i co  co  cq  lc  ic  ic  - 


joiccoco-H-tPcoic  t>  r-n  eot^tocq-^oocqoot}itoi>cqi^^jcqrHcoiccooo-H  tocqcoeocoooictot 
1-icqeo  rHrHr-icqeor-ioqcqeo^cqeqi-fcqoqoqeqeqeqiHcqeqrHeooqeooqcqi-irHeqcqeqi-iT-H^-iT-i  r-t , 


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ANALYSES  OF  SUGAR  BEETS  PRODUCED  IN  WASHINGTON  — Continued. 


20  Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


Purity 


Sugar  in  beet.. 


iMlOrtMffiOOt'Ni 


I co  r-I  i-I  01  i-1 w’  eo’  eo  in’  ■ 


i^®o>ioio®»^H«ooHHHoeoi>r*NN«^® 
I n mi’  to’  in’  eo’  in  n co  •>*’  •<*  rtl  m’  to  to'  in  in’  in  o’  o’  in'  i>  o’  co 


Sugar  in  juice. 


^t'OMOD'HOiinoiNino^oonMtotOHooci^i'OooaooinnMOinc'.o 
in  co’  <n  in’  in’  in  to’  co’  in’  in’  co’  in’  i>  to’  ■«*’  in’  eo’  co’  co’  u'  ^ ni  in’  to’  to’  in’  n to’  i-i  i-i  to’  oo  o’  oi 


Weight  of 
beet 


> eo  in  ^ r-i  oo  i 


iwifl  to  co  as  co  h co  ^ cc 


Crop  grown 
on  same 
ground  the 
preceding 
year 

Estimated 
yield  per 
acre... 

Depth  of 
plowing 


03  fQ 

o>2  o>: 

42  45 


Xiz 

§ £ 


0j2  ^2  2 

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ft  fc 


c 5 

O:  =: 


Character  of 
soil 


a 

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M 


g 

3-  - - 
o-  - * 


M 

o 

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s 


Date  o/  /iar- 
vesting.... 


Date  of  plant- 
ing  


o 

►»- 

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Bulletin  15 — Sugar  Beets. 


21 


MHOt'N^O!(0!Ct>»OMOit'Nt'N^O»t'®MI>0'#IONO»MHHNH!eOlNO®^01^IOH001C 

m -4  -h  oo  ao  os’  oo’ t-'  os’  ad  ~d  ad  i-i  oi  os’  to  eo’  in’  eo'  oo’  eo'  oi  es  3 eo  eo'  eg  10  oi  <m  in'  in  oi  eo  — ’ 00'  <0  t~  os'  eo’  ad  ~r 
t^toi>t>t^t>i>-i>i£>t>t>i>i>t^oot'aoooi>oooooooot^aoooooooooooooooooooooaoooooaooooot^t'-t'-t^ooooao 

oiONoooot'inMMW'^t'iOHoocooHiNiot'OiOHi'HHHiMnw'^cooHC'iiM^NOMH'fTrinoot' 

S ®*'  2 S S £3  2 2 S S J3  2 3 52  -12  S3  25  3 25  2 2 2 2 S S 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 2 2 2 2'  2'  2 2 2*  2 2'  2 S 2 


NOCC'^'^'VNlOOinN'^MOOtOOlt'WOlOOt'lOOiOOiaiOOHOnNb.oOOOlOOlb-OU'OOMOilOt' 
—i  o’  i-i  -n  i-h  eo’  -*n'  eo'  -h  eo’ m"  -e*  m’  eo'  eo'  im’  eo’  oo  oo  eo  i>  m eo  e©  in  oo  f-  eo  eo  t>  t>  rf  eo  eo’  in’  ^ 2 oi  oi  co'  ©d  eo’  t>  o> 


os  rt<  in  oo  <m  cc  oseoMHeoHHNcC'vosoi  nos- 

IH  HNCONNHH«NHHHr-lr-IHHHNHi 


n>j>osoot>oooeoinoi  oeooooo^ei 

INNHHNrtHHHHHNNNN  pH 


ANALYSES  OF  SUGAR  BEETS  PRODUCED  IN  WASHINGTON  — Continued. 


22  Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


Purity. 


o>®NmNOHMinoi'VOfflin^o<CNiom<ooo!HMo>MHaNonoc)C!too 
^ Tji  co  co  oi  — co’  ©’  to  to  to  ci  to  o oi  06  t*  © © i>  ©’  to  in  ■>*’  co  co’  -r  ©'  Tr"  in'  -**'  o’  © ao 
oo'»ooQO©©ooooooooooaooooo©©oooooot>t^i>ooooaooo©©ooeoooQOoooot>t^ 


Sugar  in  beet.. 


t-©rHO0-^r-(t-M©©O0<N©l>' 


it-'«Mc^©rH-»tioeo-^iineot^N'<»'©c^m'«j,kn 
! -»j<  co'  i-i  i>  t>  -h  c<i  oi  ^ oi  o’  ©'  ©’ 


Sugar  in  juice. 


-*'in©o©eox*j'©eo©t>©i>©©©in©©©XNeo>-i©©i>eox©t^x©©© 
in  © oo  ©’  -h  oo  to’  i>  eo"  •>*’  to  in  x*  ©’  ©’  ©’  m’  -m'  ^ in  in  oi  i>  t>  oi  <m’  co  ei  -h  ©"  *4 


Weight  of 
beet 


INOtOMHin»in»5llOH'#NOOmiN(N©ONHaOt>NN(NOO®IO©«»in 
IH  i-H  -H  >— I N CO  CO  C<)  Tj<  in  I-I  rH  iH  H H CO  CO 


Crop  grown 
on  same 
ground  the 
preceding 
year 

Estimated 
yield  per 
acre 

Depth  of 
plowing 

Character  of 
soil 


Date  of  har- 
vesting .... 


Date  of  plant- 
ing  


_•  • « 
.5  g 


© 

a 

<3 

g “ 

Az  §. 

u 3 fin  C 


<3 
a © 
V £ 
o <s 
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> ^ 


$ s 

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■3  = 


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03  3 ; “ - 


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AVelch 


Bulletin  15 — Sugar  Beets. 


23 


)Ooo^t>.oMcoi-t05i>'^ir5eooooi>Meou2eoe^u50>i><ooor-n>eo<nosi««Di-HT)Hi>eo»«Tt(<of5TMb.WMioi- 


0^'0<'inOOON01>®lO(N!0!OMNlNeOt>I>NOfflO)0>'^NOH't>^'#tOmNl>NOl05eiONNHH®(NM 

ic  ira"  -h  co  10  in  to"  id"  t-  to"  c<i  in’  to"  co  ^ 10  10  -*f  eo  cm  tji  if  eo  co  if  ire  <m  io  to  to  to  ko  to  if  to  <n  in  -r  10  eo  if  if 


OONNM«^OOOI010MH10MO!OOOIC10in(»^N®005NH'<fNNMHHfflONOOO>«^OOOCTnnO)H 

10  O ® ® 10  N « 10  <sV-  iO  ® N «i  N I ' •I'  10  ® 10  10  in  10 't  M T)(  T)<  10  O CO  <0  t'  l>  N ffl  N -fli  O CO  to  ^ U5 ’t  "f  10 


eoOlOOOeOlOiMlO'fi— iOi— lCOif<Nifinini 


iC0CTiaC(NINt>05t0if05  iflOOlkOCOifr-lif  t'Oi'^MO 

1 rH  I— I T— I 1—1  NHMNMNHNNHNNIMWN^eON 


ANALYSES  OF  SUGAR  BEETS  PRODUCED  IN  WASHINGTON  — Continued. 


24  Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


Purity. 


Sugar  in  beet... 


ON^OiNOOt^^OOHNXOiN  1C  ^ C 
00  O t>  I>  CO  1>  CO  GO  GO  GO  I>  t-  t>  t-  I>  t-  C 


b.<0H0)^iinNI0t'WOMt'00!0 


H^^H®H'foonoHM^^oNmomNoouC(Ovf»(N' 
■*j<  co"  co  Tf’  co"  co’  eo’  ira  co  -<*  co-  ■v’  co  oi  co’  eo’  to  eo’  10  to  in  • 


(OMONr 


Sugar  in  juice. 


00  iH  rH  00  CO  t 


OONdMKCOOONOHNOVOOi 


Weight  of 
beet 


O 3 S 10  Tt<  rH  }h  2 w 05  {5  co  eo  <n  oo  ■<*  ■ 

^MMCONNMNrtHN  M CO  CO  <N  C"1  IN 


)COOStONOiH®NHOlO' 

IC1H«NHNHHNNH 


Crop  grown 
on  same 
ground  the 
preceding 
year 

Estimated 
yield  per 
acre 

Depth  of 
plowing 

Character  of 
soil 


S:  o 
Ph  fc 


S e8- 
a - o“ 
o-  ^ 


Date  of  har- 
vesting   


Date  of  plant- 
ing  


a ft 

< < 


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5 g 
a o 
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©-  CS  © 

& a « 


Bulletin  15- — Sugar  Beets . 


25 


© © r-j  © i-j 

r-KO  co 
QO  00  © 00  00 


©©©<M'^I>OJr-<lCCOi-HXCO©COXCO©COlC'^CO©lCrHCO©^©XXi~ I © © © 

CO  © © rH*  rH  © © CO*  1C*  iH  »C  Tfj  f-4  IC*  © CO*  Tfi  © rH  1C  © © CO  © ©’  © (M  GO*  <M  © © © - 

x©xxx©xxx©i>i>xx©xt>xxxt>t^xxxx©x©xx©©©xi>' 


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1C  1C  00* 


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!>©’©<N*C  * 


ICO^rf<©©00©COI>^T^r^©<MOOCOt>lCf 
i ^*  tJH  CO*  1C*  ^*  CO*  ©*  CO*  Tji  1C*  1C*  1C*  ©*©*©*  t>  l>  ” 


l t-  t>  l>  1C  © I>  © 00  1C  1C  © 1C 
'©*!>©*  ©*  1C*  ^ Tti*  1C*  ©*  1C  CO*  <M 


© i-f  <M  © © 1C  CO  00  © © 1C  00  C<l  <N  b-  00  rH  ©q  rH  00  t>  1C  1C  © 1C  © 0*  1C  t>  © l>  « © ^ 00  © © © ^ Tt<  1C  l>  © ^ CO  © Cl 

oo  i>  co  ©*  ©*  ©’  ^h*  i>*  x’  x*  r-I  ©’  ic*  Tji  co*  ^*  ic  ic*  t*  ic*  ic*  ^ ^ ic*  oi  © ©*  © i>  i>  i>  x*  x*  ^ i>  x i>  © ic  ic*  ©*  i>  ©*  ^*  co* 

HHHHHHrHlMHHHINHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHMHHHHHHHnHHHHHHHHHHH 


I«COC1©NHN(NCO©©©«0©©HCOXIC©N©1C©©XN1C^N^©©(N(N1C©XCOH1CCO^^^C1^ 


^hhhhh 


ANALYSES  OF  SUGAR  BEETS  PRODUCED  IN  WASHINGTON  — Continued. 


26 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station . 


Purity. 


iNMlfltDOOMOCOOsaiOO)®' 


oot'Oeci 


OO^MOOlOMOMt'HOMi 

i in  i>  o'  eo’  rl  ■*«’  eo’  o’  to  ei  ■ 

‘ “O  qo  oo  co  oo  qo  r * 


) r^oo  oo  oo  oo 


Sugar  in  beet... 


oo  o oo  io  cq  os  u?  ^ eo  t((  ^ qo  Tt<  eo  i>  o rH  i>  us  eo  <o  i>  o os  eo  oo  os  io  «o  os 

1-1  eo  o'  Tt<  o’  <n  o'  co  <n‘  im’  — ' r4  <m’  oi  eo’  rn’  oi  eo'  ■*<  ^ oi  oi  oi  r-i  eo’  —I  oi  —I  eo'  eo’  eo'  eo'  eo'  eo' 


Sugar  in  juice..  | 


'#t‘^co©oio«OHe>OiOiOHO^e-«)o>©NO)e9eot-o®OHiot>*NNeoi® 
oi  eo  i-<’  io  t>  eo'  i-i  ^ eo'  eo*  •-<’  in'  eo"  eo’  ■»r  ic  eo’  eo  o o’  eo’  oi  eo’  oi  eo'  oi  eo’  tt  -<ji  lo>  tt  •*’ 


Weight  of 
beet 


N 

O 


Crop  grown 
on  same 
ground  the 
preceding 
year 


Estimated 
yield  per 
acre 


Depth  of 
plowing 


Character  of 
soil 


Date  of  har- 
vesting   


Date  of  plant- 
ing  ... 


% 


TS 

i i 

i. 

o e 


io>HN®Hooeo^OMio^!D05  c<i  eo  io  o 

HHHtOMHH««eOHNHHMHHNHi 


>eOHOO<NCiioeo-*aoo!.^eo 


Bulletin  15 — Sugar  Beets, 


27 


qo  55  «>  <o  oo  o ® 


: i i i i ! 1 i 

: : : : 

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ANALYSES  OF  SUGAR  BEETS  PRODUCED  IN  WASHINGTON — Continued. 


28 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


Parity 

1<®t'HOi|OOH<e^NHOiC>MO>0!0)NOi^®MHOMNWaMOOOM1i« 
ft  o’  CO  ft  00  00  O IC  O lO  M H O t h 1C  05  ■«*  1C  CO*  tO  Ol  to  00  00  I-I  ft  to  ft  ft  ft  ft  ft  ft  05 
co  i--  aoi^ooi^aoooooo5  05  05  05aoaooot^t>ooooooooooooooooo5aoooaoooaoooooooao 

Sugar  in  beet... 

O00H!0M®®MHOHCMH00M000iNin®t»MNO(0t'0>HMe0O  0500^t' 
«Diftooo»«D«o«o«ot't>0'#<o«o«oeoi(5i>Tj<^j^eo'9'ft?o’«dicft'«'fteooftfft«o' 

Sugar  in  juice.. 

*t0Oi0MU3t'N05OOl0O0it'(Ntf5l>HC0t010O0!^li5(0t'OHNt'l0!DCq<0 

«g"  5S  J5  2 ii  ft  J®  jo"  ao  ft  jc  od  ft  ft  ft  to  oo  ft  us  ic’  ft  ft  ft  ft  ft  jo  oo  us  oo  co  ft  us  us  ft 

Weight  of 
beet 


g Mt'N'#t"»«NOO!XNO 


HH(0»«(NHHNI<5NIOC10«NW 


Crop  grown 
on  same 
ground  the 
preceding 
year  

Estimated 
yield  per 
acre 

Depth  of 
plowing 

Character  of 
soil 

Date  of  har- 
vesting   

Date  of  plant 
ing 


o 3 


O o 
ft  £ 


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JO  1-5 


Bulletin  15  — Sugar  Beets. 


29 


co 


H lO  (N  M X (N  O lO  CO 

CO*  CO*  © 05*  <N*  <M*  <M* 

XXXN«OI>^OX 


cO^iOKOcO^^OOC*  N « CO  05  H W O N O 05  X ^ » O tt  C5  X N Oi  N 05  N ^ 
» 00  (N*  id  05  1C  GO  CO  CO  05  <N*  rH  05  05*  CO  <N*  00  CO  T-i  <M*  CO  r4  CO  rfi  (M*  1-  — i CO  ©’  id  O*  CO  oi 

QOO5  00000000Q000QOI>00QOt^l>t>l>00CX)t^COC3OGO00  00  00  00I>00  00t^GOI>O0  00GO00O5 


^l005C0c0OHXt>.C0NHTf<l^WN^(NC0XHN05OXWt>-05C0C0HC0l0NC0C0NHWXl0HXNC0i0C0C^ 

co*  co’  ic  ^*  id  ^ co’  co*  co*  co*  i>  i>  id  co*  ic*  id  co*  co*  ^ ^ co*  ^ co  co*  co  ^ «o  ic  ^ co  ^ ^ co*  oi  o*  o t>  05’  05*  o'  <n*  co* 


CO  ^ ^ ^ CO  GO  <M  O H o O CO  ic  O O <M  O — I CO  GO  »-H  I>  L-  CO  05  IO  |>  O <M  05  CO  O © © lO  00  © 1C  © CO  <M  00  O 05  o 

l>  t>  CO*  iC*  co’  ^*  CO*  I>  l>  1C*  l>  QO*  00*  CO*  l>  co*  IC  co’  1C*  1C*  CO*  t^*  ic*  ^ tc  CO  ic  1C  rfi  l>  CO  1C  co  co  1C  ^ iC  ^ CO  rH  o 00*  05  05*  T-H  c<i 


<^Ot>C0lC00C0lC^01  0505l>G0C^(N<Mr-<fH05  00  C0<MI>l>C0^C0i0c0XC0Tt<(Ml0rt<Tt<OQ0^lC 
\ CO  CO  HHHHINHMCONCOHHHHHNHHNNHHNH 


ANALYSES  OF  SUGAR  BEETS  PRODUCED  IN  WASHINGTON  — Continued. 


30  Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


Purity 


Sugar  in  beet... 


Sugar  in  juice.. 


Weight  of 
beet 


Crop  grown 
on  same 
ground  the 
preceding 
year 


Estimated 
yield  per 
acre 


Depth  of 
plowing. 


Character  of 
soil 


Date  'of  har- 
vesting   


Date  of  plant- 
ing  


•s 

-o 


a, 

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I§ 

!■§ 

Os 


iq  o'  'f  oo  ic  i^  r-  i-I  c-i  <n"  ei 
aoooooooooooooooooaoaoao 


HNNHCxOOO^ONt'OIOOOOONMmHinovi'O 
o’  1C  o'  o’  o’  o’  oo’  oo'  IC  — i IC  IC  <N  1-4  o’  IC  o IC  ao’  1-i 
aoaoooi>l.--TiCOt-l>l>«>aoaoaot-t^aoooaoi>t>ao 


OWHNMMOMOOMK5MO  MOt'OOU^O(»aOOOOflOOHI(JijiOO 
CO  IC  CO  ■<*’  Ti<  rti  IC  eo’  IC  IC  Tti  o’  <m’  Tji  to  o’  o’  o’  o’  t>  o’  I-I  o’  O*  o’  ni  o’  IC  <m’  1-4  CM  CO  CO  <N  H oi 


NOOOOOO^ICOOt'O'tOt'MOXICOO'S'OONTfOICOOOOOOOWHICO 
eo’  IC  CO  IC  IC  o’  IC  O IC  t'Clldt^  o’  o’  l>  oo’  o’  cm’  o’  i-I  i-I  ic  l>  o’  ci  1-1  Cn’  eo’  rti  CO  <N  eo’ 


iciHoeqoooQOooMOHOic^oot'  ci  oo  ic  t-  oo  t»i  noiflooho 

rH  iH  1-1  eo  CO  CO  IC  00  00  ICOOHHHNHH 


Bulletin  15 — Sugar  Beets. 


31 


to  co  co  © © ih  os  co  co  oo  to  os  m oo.  m oo  t- 1>  r 

r-1  os’  — i 1-1  ©’  Os’  00  os’  50  i-I  os’  H <m’  os'  rf<  Os'  CO  oo’  - 

ooi>ooooooi>t>i>ooooooooooot>ooi>t>i>i>c 


l0St^t>t>O50  00  O5DO50INO'^00l0«>t>0s05C0-^0000l000i-( 

\iti 


to  i-  oo  ira  i«  eo  i>  t>  o i 
im’  <m’  im’  <n’  m eo  i4  oi  us  • 


ItOr-IOSOO'ttlCOtO'^fOSOCOrHi-IOSOS- 

I co’  im’  im’  <m’  im’  co’  <m’  m m i-I  m ei  -I  i-I  o’  i 


itOHOOOOt'lO^^OWNOO'fXHOCOMOOiO 
i IM-  im’  im’  i-I  -H  t}I  Tfl  im’  CO  M co’  IC  M <m’  IM*  co  co’  im’  rtl  CO  1-1  CO 


COTflOIMIMOeO'^OOl 

co’  co"  co’  co’  co’  -<*’  im’  co’  lO  ■ 


ICOIXOIOHOCOOOSHOst'NIOlOOCONIOIMOlOeOOHtOOiOlOHlOOOt'OSH^tON 

I im’  co’  co’  co’  co’  co’  <m  im’  im’  im’  i-I  im  i-I  m co  im’  co  im’  i-I  ta  us  co  <m’  tjI  to’  co’  co’  co’  co’  co’  <m’  us  co  i-I  t»I 


ONCOHHNHIO  JO  00  os  U5  CO  ^ (M  ICO  to  to  O O IM  os  ^1  00  l>  t>00  00  M ^ JO  os  M 00  O IM  CO  SO 
1—1  i—l  i—(  1—1  NHHHHINHHH  1-IIM1-IIM1H  HHN  <Mr-li-l--l  NNHHHH  H CO  H 


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ANALYSES  OF  SUGAR  BEETS  PRODUCED  IN  WASHINGTON  — Continued. 


32 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  fetation. 


C>  ® Oi  W W IO  ^ H » OJ  H o O H Tji  iO  00  00  CO  00  © I>  l>  05*  rH  rH  <£>  05  rH  O O 

00  00IXX)COQ00000COI>a0CO00GO0000GO00  00  00  00  O5C5O5Q0O500  t^XI>00L^Q0O5O5O5 

Sugar  in  beet ... 

COTHC5©00'*<rHO*00^C0^C0C<IO5r^©*kO^<OI>O5©|>a0lOI>lOC0O5C<U>O5©©'*i 

3 3 3 3 3 SJSjsjSfSJSfSS  3 25  53  53*  53  2S  55  22  S*  S3  J2  53  3 c©  ©©  0 3 oi  3 3 3 ©i 

Sugar  in  juice.. 

oxiox^H05050NH(NHa5oa50^^»oooHo«oioicwoioo^Nx^o 
JO  3 c4  JO  ©j  3*  JO  3 JO  JO  O*  JO  3*  3*  3’  JO  05  00  00  05  rH  jo  05  JO  3 r—i  JO  CO  JO  10*  JO  CO 

Weight  of 
beet 

0 12  weoeot>oo  jocqao  wiCKNeocooej^j  ic-^^0005  J2  S ° JS  05  00  3 M {2 

$ HHN  HH  HHHHHHNH  iH  HHMM  nH 

Crop  grown 
on  same 
ground  the 
preceding 
year 


Estimated 
yield  per 
acre 


Depth  of 
plowing 

Character  of 
soil 

Date  of  har- 
vesting   

Date  of  plant- 
ing  


fc*  - - - ; ~ Z Z Z 


.2:  S 
S ’S' 

c S 

% * 


s-  g-  .5 


£ 

o 

- B: 

M 


£ 2 | 

© 3 ^ 

5=  S=  .2 


_ 3 4J  .73  fi 

J w ^ > p 


Bulletin  15 — Sugar  Beets. 


33 


00  l>  O O CO  05  iH  <N  05  05  O O O O O 05  © oo  © O to  CO  1>  ■'*  O eo  I>  r-J  iH  <-<  •*<  © OO  t>  l>  O 00  iH  O t-I  l>  CO  i~f  o o 

i T)i  w o’  oi  i>  ^ d o » d ^ n h ci  oi  n n d «'  i>  n n o n in  ^ oi  h rH  to  m i 
>ooooooooaoaoaoaooo©ooaoaoaoi>oo!>ooccooaoooaoaoaoaoaoaoaoaoaooo< 


Ci5Mt't'^HW<ifH«03»»NN»Nt't'M®'#t'NI>OOi0i®l6ON©0>M«h.O^HI0M©H^I01OO 
eo  eo’  <m’  th’  eo’  o’  oi  eo"  o'  o’  o’  o’  •>#’  i d oi  o’  >-!  eo’  i>  t>  oo’  o’  o’  t>  o’  o’  o’  o’  eo*  eo'  eo’  eo’  eo’  rfi  o’  i>  t>  o’  eo’  eo  eo’  ei  o'  ei  eo’ 


OO'J'TflOXbOOOOHOHOOOOeO^NWifSiHO^KNO^NffiOOOaOOiMO^OOQOOHNN 

o’  j2]’  eo  eo  eo  o’  eo  eo  o’  o’  o’  o’  o’  o’  eo  o’  eg  oo  oo  o’  tg  t-j  oo  o’  o’  o’  eo  Tjj  o’  tg  oo  oo  tg  -d  eo  eo  rn"  eg  eg 


HHMOt»©t»t'N©ONHOlNCqeOHNOH«iO' 
N CO  rH !— ( H H rH  rH 


iC<IOOt>C0I>OOOOOOOONTt'r-IO'Sit'»O 

HHMeoHHHeqHH  connhhhh 


ANALYSES  OF  SUGAR  BEETS  PRODUCED  IN  WASHINGTON— Continued. 


34  Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


Purity . 


Sugar  in  beet... 


lh-0>HNlOW5l01f50(CO)Ot'©ONOt'lOOiOK)OOiH010inM»lOOiCiMtO 
_ • oo  © «oo50iOHcooa 

QOt>QOt>©I>t>OOI>l>  I- 


oi  O ci  Oi  00  O n N o N H H <M  00  ©*  ©*  © © ^ lO  ©’  ©’  ©’  LO  CO  1C  IO  ©’  ©’  ©’  o’  LO  1— i <M 


Sugar  in  juice. 


inint'NO'HMJ)^ONOOOMKlaOOONONOOOOWOWOlOIOOK5HO®NN 
CO  1—1  0-1  O ci  rH  1-J  CO  i-H  CO  -H  Ol  N^VtONh  H5  «C  t'*  50  LO  O -F  OtOhN^N  1C  <N  CO 


Weight  of 
beet 


ICO-^IMIC  I>  Tf(  l>  O CO  CO  CO  M" 


C<la01O  (M  OCOOOiHlO- 
( 1-1  rlHNNHHH  i 


'XXNHN 


Crop  grown 
on  same 
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preceding 
year 

Estimated 
yield  per 
acre 

Depth  of 
plowing 


a 

<u 

<5  T3  - 
rr - c3 

^ o 


Character  of 
soil 


£3 

c3  - - 
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so;  : 

3 


Date  of  har- 
vesting   


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ing  


io 

2:  : « 

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< £ H ◄' 


Bulletin  15  — Sugar  Beets. 


35 


O00HOOI>M^>0( 


!t'H,SHHHOi00®®H00HHO>O>H®H®HU:> 


: : : : : 

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t ::::::::::::::::::::::  : 


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ANALYSES  OF  SUGAR  BEETS  PRODUCED  IN  WASHINGTON 


36 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


Purity 


S S3  S3  S3  s'  £ §'  s'  s'  s'  S3  3 83  SB  3 8 S S S g g g S S3  S SS8SS  S 88  S3  S S3  S S3 


Sugar  in  beet . 


OOOi^O^^lCOOOHH^NOJOCOMC^i 


Sugar  in  juice.. 


Weight  of 


i os  ^ ih  eo  ih  oo  us  ooco 


eg  <N  co  ao  eo  co  r-i 


io  io  o 


Crop  grown 
ground  the 


i i : 
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: : 
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Estimated 
yield  per 
acre 

Depth  of 
plowing 

Character  of 
soil 

Date  of  har- 
vesting   

Date  of  plant 
ing 


:::::::::::::::::::: 


; : : 


:::::: 


: ! : : 


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Bulletin  15 — Sugar  Beets , 


37 


00  *>  © t-  00  CO  ^ TtJ  CO  © lO  r-J  kO  CO  I>  lO  00 

« CO  lO  Oi  N O tfD  N O O NTji  ift  Ifl  b-O 

00  00  00  a0  00  00  00  a0  05  05©l000a500l>00a0a0a5 


NWOOMO^HNCO^OCOCOOJ 

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00  00  00  00  00  00  00  00  05  00  05  05  00  00 


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Tfi  CO  Tfi  <M*  r- 1 <N*  00 

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ANALYSES  OF  SUGAR  BEETS  PRODUCED  IN  WASHINGTON  — Continued. 


38  Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


Purity . 


Sugar  in  beet.. 


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Bulletin  15 — Sugar  Beets. 


39 


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ANALYSES  OF  SUGAR  BEETS  PRODUCED  IN  WASHINGTON  — Continued. 


40  Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


Purity. 


Sugar  in  beet... 


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Bulletin  15 — Sugar  Beets . 


41 


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ANALYSES  OF  SUGAR  BEETS  PRODUCED  IN  WASHINGTON  — Continued. 


42 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


Purity. 


Sugar  in  beet... 


Sugar  in  juice.. 


Weight  of 
beet 


to 


Crop  grown 
on  same 
ground  the 
preceding 
year 


Estimated 
yield  per 
acre 


Depth  of 
plowing. 


Character  of 
soil 


Date  of  har- 
vesting   


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Bulletin  15 — Sugar  Beets . 


43 


HHOOXOICO  CO  05  00  rH  05  rH  <N  GO  © CO  CO  rH  00  ^ 

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ANALYSES  OF  SUGAR  BEETS  PRODUCED  IN  WASHINGTON  — Continued. 


44  Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


Purity. 


Sugar  in  beet ... 


Sugar  in  juice.. 


Weight  of 
beet 


Crop  grown 
on  same 
ground  the 
preceding 
year 


Estimated 
yield  per 
acre 


Depth  of 
plowing. 


Character  of 
soil 


Date  of  har- 
vesting   


Date  of  plant- 
ing  


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Bulletin  15 — Sugar  Beets. 


45 


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ANALYSES  OF  SUGAR  BEETS  PRODUCED  IN  WASHINGTON  — Continued. 


46 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


Purity 


Sugar  in  beet... 


Sugar  in  juice.. 


Weight  of 
beet 


N 

o 

to 


Crop  grown 
on  same 
ground  the 
preceding 
year 


Estimated 
yield  per 
acre 


Depth  of 
plowing. 


Character  of 
soil 


Date  of  har- 
vesting   


Date  of  plant- 
ing  


c 


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Bulletin  15 — Sugar  Beets . 


47 


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ANALYSES  OF  SUGAR  BEETS  PRODUCED  IN  WASHINGTON  — Concluded. 


48  Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


Purity. 


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Sugar  in  beet... 


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Sugar  in  juice. 


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Weight  of 
beet 


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IHHNNNHHHNHHHC1WHNCOWWHNCOHC1CON 


Crop  grown 
on  same 
ground  the 
preceding 
year 

Estimated 
yield  per 
acre 

Depth  of 
plowing 

Character  of 
soil 


(V  o 


5: 


5 

.o- 

>>  M 

■O  «- 

g:  : : «- 

CO  »A 

02  ffl 


Date  of  har- 
vesting .... 


Cl 


Date  of  plant- 
ing  


S § <J 


CQ 

iH 

* a£: 


II 


® S 

c-:  - ; 


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s c-  - 


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JH- 


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TS. 

- Sr  - 

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a-  £ 

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•2  S = 

§ 4 


* 0 
I *= 

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Bulletin  15 — Sugar  Beets. 


49 


—4 


50 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


From  these  tables  the  following  interesting  facts  are  obtained: 


Number  of  samples  yielding  less  than  10  per  cent,  of  sugar 52 

“ “ “ between  10  and  11  per  cent,  of  sugar 38 

“ “ “ “ 11  and  12  “ “ ....7. 74 

“ “ “ “ 12  and  13  “ “ 134 

“ “ “ “ 13  and  14  “ “ 239 

“ “ “ “ 14  and  15  “ “ 328 

“ “ “ “ 15  and  16  “ “ 336 

“ “ “ “ 16  and  17  “ “ 246 

“ “ “ “ 17  and  18  “ “ 149 

“ “ “ “ 18  and  19  “ “ 68 

“ more  than  19  per  cent,  of  sugar * 36 

Highest  sugar  percentage 21.9 

Lowest  “ “ 4.7 


It  is  a most  gratifying  fact  that  1,536,  or  over  90  per  cent,  of  the 
1,700  analyses,  show  a percentage  of  sugar  higher  than  the  12  per 
cent,  factory  requirement.  Were  the  Vilmorin  Improved  variety 
to  be  excluded  in  this  connection,  about  95  per  cent,  of  the  total 
number  would  show  more  than  12  per  cent,  of  sugar. 

The  following  averages,  by  towns,  include  all  varieties: 

WESTERN  WASHINGTON. 


Town. 

County. 

No.  analy- 
ses  

a- ? 
«>  • 
8-8 
o ‘ 

Av.  per  ct. 
sugar.... 

Average 

purity.... 

Best  single 
analysis. 

Poorest  single 
analysis. 

Sugar. 

Purity. 

Sugar. 

Purity. 

A gate 

Lewis 

6 

15 

13.7 

84.5 

14.5 

85.3 

13.0 

84.5 

Acme 

Whatcom 

4 

31 

9.6 

80.3 

10.6 

81.8 

8.2 

73.2 

Arlington 

Snohomish .... 

2 

40 

12.8 

80.0 

12.9 

81.6 

12.7 

78.4 

JBlaine 

Whatcom 

4 

42 

14.4 

89.2 

15.9 

92.4 

11.8 

81.4 

^Baker 

Skagit 

6 

58 

13.5 

84.8 

14.5 

88.9 

12.0 

76.9 

Beach 

Whatcom 

2 

23 

11.2 

78.0 

11.5 

79.9 

10.8 

76.1 

Coupeville 

Island 

6 

44 

14.2 

87.7 

14.8 

88.6 

13.4 

87.0 

•Cedarville 

Chehalis 

6 

42 

12.1 

83.2 

14.0 

85.4 

9.8 

80.7 

"Cowlitz 

Lewis 

8 

17 

12.6 

81.5 

15.5 

85.6 

8.5 

74.5 

Centralia 

Lewis 

3 

5 

15.3 

83.2 

15.8 

86.3 

15.0 

82.0 

■ Chehalis 

Lewis 

8 

22 

12.6 

78.6 

13.3 

79.2 

11.7 

80.7 

Dungeness  

Clallam 

21 

80 

10.2 

81.0 

15.3 

86.4 

6.3 

70.0 

El  m a 

Chehalis. 

12 

35 

12.6 

78.9 

14.2 

84.0 

11.5 

79.3 

Enterprise 

Whatcom 

20 

16 

14.9 

85.8 

16.7 

90.7 

12.3 

74.1 

Fidalgo 

Skagit 

3 

16.4 

88.6 

18.3 

88.4 

13.8 

85.2 

Fern  Hill 

Pierce 

7 

12 

14.9 

84.5 

16.9 

87.5 

13.0 

74.3 

Florence 

Snohomish .... 

4 

54 

12.2 

84.6 

14.4 

90.6 

9.2 

74.2 

Home  Valley  ... 

Skamania 

1 

3 

12.4 

82.7 

Hartford 

Snohomish .... 

16 

18 

14.7 

87.5 

17.0 

92.4 

11.0 

80.9 

Ilwaco 

Pacific 

22 

18 

14.4 

84.4 

17.0 

93.4 

10.4 

74.3 

Kent 

King 

18 

20 

13.3 

79.0 

16.5 

84.6 

10.0 

70.9 

Kelso 

Cowlitz 

2 

36 

14.6 

83.5 

15.5 

86.5 

13.7 

80.6 

Kalama 

Cowlitz 

6 

26 

13.1 

83.4 

13.8 

84.7 

11.1 

78.2 

La  Conner  

Skagit 

14 

24 

14.5 

86.0 

17.4 

92.5 

12.6 

80.8 

Markham 

Chehalis 

4 

27 

15.6 

91.4 

16.1 

96.4 

14.9 

87.6 

Montesano 

Chehalis 

12 

35 

11.4 

77.7 

16.8 

92.3 

5.4 

60.0 

Menlo 

Pacific 

12 

17 

16.1 

88.8 

17.8 

95.2 

13.7 

82.5 

Marysville 

Snohomish .... 

10 

17 

13.0 

79.6 

15.1 

92.6 

11.1 

72.6 

Norman 

Shohomish .... 

4 

45 

12.5 

83.3 

15.1 

87.8 

10.5 

80.7 

Nooksa.ek 

Whatcom 

4 

34 

15.2 

86.3 

16.4 

90.1 

13.0 

78.3 

Napa.vi  ne 

Lewis 

11 

26 

13.5 

81.4 

15.8 

86.3 

11.5 

76.7 

"Newcastle  

King 

6 

21 

11.5 

72.0 

13.4 

78.4 

10.0 

67.1 

Orbing. 

Pierce 

16 

26 

14.4 

85.4 

16.0 

88.9 

9.4 

75.8 

Qnileene  

Jefferson 

12 

33 

13.7 

88.8 

16.7 

91.7 

10.3 

83.8 

Roche  Harbor... 

San  Juan 

2 

38 

9.9 

64.9 

10.9 

69.0 

9.0 

60.9 

Bulletin  15 — Sugar  Beets . 


51 


WESTERN  WASHINGTON— Concluded. 


Town. 

County. 

.3 

* 

r § 

O'? 
a * 

Jt§. 

k 

ft  ? 

§ 3 

k 

1 1 
!.■!§ 

Best  single 
analysis. 

Poorest  single 
analysis. 

i t 

li 

• St 

ft 

Sugar. 

Purity. 

Sugar. 

Purity. 

Sedro  

Skagit 

8 

21 

13.3 

80.1 

14.0 

79.1 

12.3 

78.0 

Sultan 

Shohomish .... 

10 

34 

14.8 

91.3 

16.5 

94.3 

12.2 

87.1 

Skamokawa 

Wahkiakum .. 

4 

31 

14.1 

81.4 

15.2 

86.9 

12.4 

74.7 

Toledo 

Lewis 

41 

22 

14.0 

84.7 

17.1 

90.0 

7.7 

74.0 

Wi  llapa 

Pacific 

2 

13 

15.7 

87.7 

17.6 

90.2 

13.9 

85.3 

Whatcom 

Whatcom 

12 

15 

11.8 

77.9 

13.6 

79.5 

9.0 

Woolley 

Skagit 

4 

28 

13.3 

80.0 

14.2 

85.5 

12.5 

78.7 

Wickersham 

Whatcom 

7 

12 

13.0 

81.0 

13.7 

83.0 

12.0 

87.0 

Wana 

Snohomish .... 

6 

41 

11.4 

77.5 

14.7 

87.5 

7.7 

64.1 

Wabash 

King 

4 

12 

11.8 

82.2 

11.9 

83.8 

11.7 

88.6 

EASTERN  WASHINGTON. 


23 

13 

16.7 

85.3 

21.9 

92.7 

12.0 

77.4 

6 

17 

14.3 

84.9 

16.1 

86.1 

12.5 

87.4 

8 

19 

15.3 

83.5 

18.1 

86.2 

13.6 

8o!o 

5 

47 

15.2 

80.2 

16.5 

84.2 

14.6 

77.6 

4 

22 

15.7 

89.9 

16.5 

91.1 

15.0 

88.2 

2 

27 

8.3 

58.7 

10.0 

65.3 

6.5 

52.0 

8 

35 

15.4 

80.5 

17.2 

87.0 

13.9 

74.3 

41 

15 

15.5 

83.1 

19.4 

82.6 

10.7 

84.9 

129 

22 

15.2 

84.1 

19.8 

94.3 

11.6 

83A 

11 

22 

15.8 

86.1 

19.8 

87.2 

13.4 

81.7 

24 

33 

14.2 

80.5 

17.2 

86.9 

4.7 

50.5 

54 

19 

16.0 

84.1 

20.1 

93.3 

7.0 

62.5 

Davenport 

Lincoln 

10 

7 

16.9 

78.4 

19.3 

88.9 

10.3 

51.5 

Diamond 

Whitman 

9 

18 

15.8 

85.7 

20.9 

92.0 

12.5 

69.1 

Dixie 

Walla  Walla... 

8 

22 

14.4 

86.1 

15.1 

91.5 

13.5 

83.3 

Delight 

Adams 

2 

3 

10.6 

81.5 

11.6 

78.9 

9.5 

84.1 

Ellensburgh 

Kittitas 

98 

10 

15.9 

85.2 

20.0 

94.7 

9.5 

76.6 

Fletcher 

Adams 

6 

10 

14.0 

86.0 

15.3 

86.4 

10.5 

84.7 

Fairfield 

Spokane 

74 

13 

15.4 

85  3 

17  6 

92.1 

10  3 

72^0 

Farmington 

Whitman 

20 

53 

12.3 

78.1 

15.0 

82.9 

5.8 

57.4 

Fallons 

Whitman 

6 

14 

15.8 

89.1 

17.4 

85.6 

13.5 

87.1 

Garfield 

Whitman 

46 

17 

15.2 

85.4 

19.8 

96.6 

10.1 

77.7 

Guy 

Whitman 

25 

24 

15.3 

85.5 

17.8 

90.3 

10.9 

72A 

Gould  City 

Garfield 

2 

48 

14.3 

80.3 

14.6 

81.1 

14.0 

79.5 

Harvev 

Stevens 

8 

24 

15.7 

82.4 

17.7 

86.3 

12.0 

71.4 

Kettle  Falls 

Stevens 

8 

12 

15.6 

85.0 

17.1 

89.1 

13.8 

76.7 

Larene 

Lincoln 

4 

10 

17.2 

92.7 

18.5 

95.7 

15.0 

90^9 

Latah 

Spokane 

20 

26 

14.5 

82.4 

17.0 

82.5 

11.0 

77.5 

Marshall 

Spokane 

2 

45 

13.2 

81.6 

14  2 

85.0 

12  2 

78.2 

Medical  Lake... 

Spokane 

6 

15 

14.4 

74.3 

18.5 

78.0 

11.2 

66.1 

May  view 

Garfield 

13 

34 

14.2 

78.5 

16.6 

84.7 

11  9 

69.6 

Oakesdale 

Whitman 

21 

38 

13.5 

80.5 

16.6 

86.5 

9.3 

77.5 

Pomeroy 

Garfield 

32 

37 

14.8 

80.1 

17.6 

82.2 

11.0 

66.6 

Palouse 

Whitman 

23 

15 

15.6 

83.8 

18.6 

88.6 

12.9 

81  1 

Prescott 

Walla  Walla... 

6 

30 

15.7 

84.3 

17.5 

89.7 

13.7 

81.1 

Pine  City 

Whitman 

6 

23 

16.8 

85.5 

18.8 

87.4 

14.8 

81.3 

Pullman 

Whitman 

106 

20 

15.8 

84.4 

19.4 

89.8 

12.3 

77.4 

Pataha 

Garfield 

9 

36 

13.0 

79.0 

16.6 

86.5 

10.8 

71.1 

Plaza 

Spokane 

8 

27 

16.1 

85.5 

19.3 

91.4 

13.2 

75.9 

Reardon 

Lincoln 

18 

19 

16.4 

84^3 

17*9 

86.9 

14^3 

71 ’l 

Rockford 

Spokane 

8 

15 

13.7 

82.1 

15.1 

86.8 

12.9 

83.8 

Rosalia 

Whitman 

15 

16 

16.7 

89.4 

19.6 

90.3 

14.3 

82.2 

Riparia 

Columbia 

4 

14 

15.9 

85.9 

16.3 

90.5 

13.9 

81.3 

St.  John 

Whitman 

5 

7 

15.4 

85.9 

16.8 

89.4 

14.1 

83.4 

Steptoe 

Whitman 

12 

43 

14.5 

82.1 

16.8 

87.4 

12.0 

70.6 

Sprague 

Lincoln 

3 

4 

14.6 

67.6 

15.5 

75.6 

13.0 

58.0 

Starbuck 

Columbia 

6 

18 

13.8 

75.9 

17.0 

84.6 

11.4 

70.3 

Spokane 

Spokane 

32 

19 

15.5 

82.6 

19.8 

94.1 

12.6 

76.8 

Sunset 

Whitman 

4 

42 

14.2 

82.9 

16.1 

88.4 

11.9 

78.8 

Tekoa 

Whitman . . 

19 

20 

14.2 

82.3 

17.4 

91  1 

11  1 

79  9 

Uniontown 

Whitman 

120 

28 

15.2 

82.7 

18.2 

89.2 

11.2 

75.7 

Unknown 

36 

18 

15.7 

85.1 

21.5 

90.7 

8.5 

72.7 

Waverly 

Spokane  

65 

18 

15.1 

84.4 

17.8 

87.6 

9.5 

80^5 

Welch 

Spokane 

12 

12 

15.1 

79.8 

18  3 

88.4 

12  4 

71  6 

Walla  Walla 

Walla  Walla... 

14 

66 

12.2 

74.4 

17.5 

81.8 

7.0 

49.6 

Yakima  City.... 

Yakima 

4 

23 

13.8 

80.1 

14.4 

82.3 

13.0 

78.3 

52  Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


Averaging  the  analyses  from  each  county,  results  are  obtained 
that  form  an  interesting  study.  All  varieties  are  also  included 
here: 

COUNTY  AVERAGES. 


Name. 


Adams 

Asotin 

Clallam 

Cowlitz 

Chehalis 

Columbia 

Garfield 

Island 

Jefferson 

Kittitas 

King 

Lincoln 

Lewis  

Pierce  

Pacific 

Spokane 

Stevens 

Snohomish.. 

Skamania 

Skagit 

San  Juan 

Whatcom 

Wahkiakum 
Walla  Walla. 

Whitman 

Yakima 


No.  of 
analyses.. 

Av.  weight 
in  ozs 

8 

6 

26 

16 

21 

80 

8 

31 

34 

35 

68 

18 

56 

39 

6 

44 

12 

33 

98 

10 

28 

18 

76 

11 

77 

18 

23 

19 

36 

16 

235 

22 

29 

21 

52 

36 

1 

3 

33 

19 

2 

38 

59 

29 

4 

31 

28 

39 

597 

25 

4 

23 

Av.  sugar... 

Av.  purity.. 

12.3 

83.7 

16.0 

84.4 

10.2 

81.0 

13.8 

83.4 

12.9 

82.8 

15.3 

83.9 

14.0 

79.4 

14.2 

87.7 

13.7 

88.8 

15.9 

85.2 

12.2 

77.7 

16.1 

81.2 

13.6 

82.3 

14.6 

84.9 

15.4 

86.9 

14.8 

81.8 

13.8 

78.5 

13.5 

83.4 

12.4 

82.7 

14.3 

83.6 

9.9 

64.9 

12.2 

82.9 

14.1 

81.4 

14.1 

81.6 

15.1 

83.9 

13.8 

80.1 

It  will  be  seen  from  this  table  that  only  two  counties  fall  below 
the  required  12  per  cent,  of  sugar.  In  the  case  of  Clallam  county 
nearly  all  of  the  21  samples  were  of  the  variety  “Vilmorin  Im- 
proved.” Only  four  counties  have  an  average  purity  below  80. 
These  averages  do  not  impress  one  with  their  real  significance  un- 
less one  keeps  in  mind  the  factory  requirements,  viz.,  12  per  cent, 
of  sugar  and  a purity  of  80. 

Beets  were  received  and  analyzed  from  forty-five  towns  west  and 
fifty-six  east  of  the  Cascade  mountains.  The  following  comparison 
will  be  of  interest  when  we  consider  the  wide  variations  of  condi- 
tions between  these  two  portions  of  the  state: 


Locality. 

No.  of 

No.  of 

Average  wt. 

Av.  per  cent. 

Average 

towns. 

analyses. 

of  beet. 

of  sugar. 

purity. 

Eastern  Washington 

56 

1,270 

23  oz. 

14.9 

82.4 

Western  Washington 

45 

396 

26  oz. 

13.3 

82.8 

These  averages  include  all  analyses. 


Bulletin  15 — Sugar  Beets. 


53 


Eliminating  from  them  the  variety  “Vilmorin  Improved,”  the 
following  results  are  obtained: 


No.  of 

No.  of 

Average  wt. 

Av.  per  cent. 

Average 

Locality . 

towns. 

analyses. 

of  beet. 

of  sugar. 

purity. 

Eastern  Washington 

56 

1,188 

21  oz. 

15.5 

83.8 

Western  Washington 

45 

360 

24  oz. 

14.9 

83.8 

While  1,700  analyses  were  made,  these  averages  were  computed 
before  some  of  these  samples  arrived;  hence  only  1,666  analyses 
are  included  in  them. 

For  the  entire  state,  including  all  varieties,  we  have  the  follow- 
ing data:  1,666  analyses;  average  weight,  25  ounces;  average 

sugar,  14.2  per  cent.;  average  purity,  82.6. 

Included  in  this  are  122  analyses  of  the  variety  “Vilmorin  Im- 
proved,” which  averaged  as  follows:  Weight,  43  ounces;  sugar, 
11.1  percent.;  purity,  77.0. 

Eliminating  this  variety  from  the  state  average  ( which  it  is  mani- 
festly just  to  do  for  reasons  already  given)  we  have  the  following: 
1,544  analyses;  average  weight,  22  ounces;  average  sugar,  15.2  per 
cent.;  average  purity,  83.8. 

What  do  These  Results  Mean  to  the  State  of  Washington? 

In  order  to  realize  to  the  fullest  extent  what  these  results  mean 
to  us  we  must  know  about  the  results  obtained  in  other  states.  We 
give  below  some  data  taken  from  the  bulletins  of  the  different  ex- 
periment stations: 


State. 

No.  of 
bulletin 

Season 

No.  of 
analyses 
averaged  ... 

Average 

sugar 

percentage.. 

Average 
purity 

North  Dakota 

5 

1891 

129 

11.4 

Oregon 

23 

1892 

65 

v15.7 

78.1 

South  Dakota 

34 

1892 

160 

13.9 

75.8 

Wisconsin 

26 

1890 

93 

12.5 

77.1 

Wyoming 

17 

1893 

33 

17.1 

80.9 

Indiana 

49 

1893 

49 

12.5 

78.9 

Iowa 

23 

1893 

55 

11.9 

76.1 

Kansas 

36 

1892 

95 

11.0 

74.0 

Michigan 

82 

1891 

239 

13.8 

86.4 

Minnesota 

27 

1892 

182 

14.4 

82.3 

Colorado 

14 

1890 

72 

11.6 

83.1 

Washington 

1894 

1,544 

15.2 

83.8 

It  will  be  noticed  that  only  two  states,  Oregon  and  Wyoming, 
have  obtained  averages  approximating  to  those  obtained  here  last 


54 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


year;  and  in  both  cases  the  number  of  samples  averaged  was  less 
than  one  hundred. 

Beets  of  the  highest  degree  of  perfection  result  only  from  the 
most  thorough  and  intelligent  cultivation.  The  samples  analyzed 
last  year  were  grown  under  the  most  unfavorable  culture  con- 
ditions, and  selected  by  men  who  were,  in  the  main,  wholly 
unacquainted  with  the  characteristics  of  beets  contaiuing  a high 
percentage  of  saccharine  matter.  It  is,  therefore,  fair  to  presume 
that  the  average  above  given  is,  at  least,  no  higher  than  would  be 
obtained  from  beets  grown  for  factory  purposes. 

These  results  then  simply  mean  that  the  State  of  Washington  can 
produce  beets  of  a character  greatly  to  be  desired  by  factories. 

Will  the  Beet  Sugar  Industry  Be  Established  in  Washington? 

That  depends.  The  work  just  completed  demonstrates  the  su- 
perior character  of  Washington  beets.  In  regard  to  tonnage  yield, 
we  can  give  no  accurate  data.  It  is  probable  that  an  average  of 
twenty  tons  per  acre  would  be  a conservative  estimate;  but  this  is 
only  an  estimate  and  not  based  upon  accurate  measurement  of 
ground,  and  weight  of  beets  produced.  However,  those  who  know 
the  capabilities  of  our  soil  have  no  fear  of  disappointment  from  low 
yield.  Another  very  important  point  upon  which  the  introduction 
of  this  industry  will  depend  is  the  cost  of  production.  Our  farm- 
ers must  understand  from  the  outset  that  it  will  cost  time,  labor, 
and  money  to  raise  a crop  of  beets  that  will  yield  proper  returns. 
And  it  is  self-evident  that  they  will  not  undertake  to  raise  beets 
for  a factory  until  they  are  convinced  that  the  large  outlay  of  en- 
ergy and  money  necessary  to  raise  them  will  yield  proportionately 
larger  returns  than  a smaller  outlay  applied  to  raising  some  other 
crop.  In  other  words,  the  future  of  beet  culture  in  this  state,  as 
elsewhere,  depends  entirely  on  the  return  it  yields  — the  cost  of 
production  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  yield  per  acre  and  price  per 
ton  paid  by  the  factory,  on  the  other.  As  nearly  as  can  be  ascer- 
tained from  the  statistics  concerning  beet  culture  in  Nebraska,  the 
cost  of  production  averages  from  $30  to  $40  per  acre,  where  no 
fertilizers  are  used.  There  is  no  good  reason  why  it  should  cost  a 
greater  sum  to#  produce  an  acre  of  beets  in  Washington,  and  some 
very  good  reasons  why  it  should  cost  less.  The  weed  problem  is 
much  more  easily  met  in  Washington  than  in  older  agricultural 
states.  One  good  hoeing,  in  this  state,  will  accomplish  as  much  in 
weed  destruction  as  two  hoeings  in  Nebraska.  This  is  by  no 


Bulletin  15 — Sugar  Beets. 


55 


means  an  insignificant  item.  Ten  dollars  is  the  average  of  four 
estimates  obtained  concerning  the  actual  cost  of  the  labor  for  hoe- 
ing an  acre  of  beets  in  Nebraska.  Those  who  have  observed  care- 
fully the  agricultural  conditions  in  the  two  states  will  sustain  the 
assertion  that  one-half  the  labor  required  to  keep  weeds  down 
there,  will  easily  accomplish  the  same  object  here.  Hence,  in  this 
point  alone,  assuming  our  yield  to  be  twenty  tons  per  acre,  the  cost 
of  production  will  be  twenty-five  cents  per  ton  less  here  than  in 
Nebraska. 

It  must  not  be  supposed,  however,  that  the  beets  are  hoed  for  the 
sole  purpose  of  killing  weeds.  A certain  amount  of  labor  expended 
in  stirring  the  soil,  to  admit  free  circulation  of  air  to  the  roots, 
would  be  very  necessary,  even  though  the  weeds  were  wholly  ab- 
sent. And  further,  up  to  certain  limits,  the  yield  of  saccharine 
matter  in  the  roots  will  be  largely  dependent  on  the  amount  of 
labor  directed  to  this  end.  But  every  farmer  knows  that  it  is 
cheaper  and  easier  to  simply  stir  the  soil  than  it  is  to  kill  weeds  at 
the  same  time.  The  comparatively  few  weeds  we  have  is  then  one 
point  in  favor  of  the  farmer  in  beet  production. 

We  do  not  advocate  beet  farming  alone,  but  as  a factor  of  di- 
versity. It  has  been  urged  that  beets  exhaust  the  soil  too  quickly, 
and  it  is  very  true  that  a forced  culture  of  beets  would,  in  a com- 
paratively short  time,  cause  a decrease  in  soil  productivity;  but 
this  is  also  true  of  other  crops  when  they  are  made  the  object  of 
forced  culture.  An  intelligent  culture  of  beets,  as  a crop  in  rota- 
tion, works  no  more  injury  to  the  soil  than  does  wheat,  oats,  or 
hops,  and  in  some  respects  improves  it.  Dr.  Wiley  says: 

The  establishment  of  sugar  beet  culture  becomes  a true  lesson  in  agri- 
culture. Every  field  properly  cultivated  in  beets  becomes  an  agricultural 
experiment  station.  The  influence  of  beet  culture  is  felt  upon  every  other 
crop.  The  yield  per  acre  of  cereals,  root  crops,  and  grasses,  is  always 
found  higher  in  a community  after  the  introduction  of  beet  culture. 

How  much  will  the  farmer  receive  for  his  beets?  This  is,  of 
course,  impossible  to  state.  We  can  simply  be  guided  in  our  esti- 
mations by  what  the  factories  now  in  operation  pay  per  ton.  In 
Nebraska,  during  1894,  the  price  paid  was  $5  per  ton.  If  2,000 
acres  of  the  crop  of  1895  are  contracted,  the  Norfolk  factory  agrees 
to  pay  $4  per  ton  straight,  or  $3.50  per  ton  for  12  per  cent,  beets, 
and  twenty-five  cents  more  per  ton  for  each  additional  per  cent,  of 
sugar  in  the  beets.  In  Utah,  $5  per  ton  was  paid  for  last  year’s  crop, 
but  will  be  much  lower  for  the  crop  of  1895.  At  Watsonville,  Cali- 


56  % Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


fornia,  the  price  will  be  $4  per  ton,  while  at  Chino,  California,  |3.50 
will  be  paid  for  12  per  cent,  beets,  and  twenty-five  cents  more  per  ton 
for  each  and  every  additional  per  cent,  of  sugar  in  the  beets. 

From  these  figures  we  see  that  the  lowest  price  agreed  upon  for 
the  crop  of  1895  is  $4  per  ton  where  payment  is  not  based  upon 
sugar  percentage.  Suppose  our  Washington  farmers  should  raise 
fifteen  tons  per  acre,  which  we  believe  to  be  a low  estimate,  the 
amount  received  per  acre  for  the  beets  would  be  $60.  Count  the 
cost  of  production  $40  per  acre,  which  is  undoubtedly  high,  and 
the  net  profit  is  then  $20  per  acre.  This  would  be  much  more  re- 
munerative than  fifty  bushels  per  acre  of  fifty  cent  wheat. 

Our  state  bounty  law  provides  that  one-half  cent  per  pound  shall 
be  paid  to  the  farmer  for  all  sugar  manufactured  from  his  beets. 
The  beet  crop  of  1893  in  the  United  States  yielded  an  average  of 
230.7  pounds  of  sugar  per  ton  of  beets.  Fifteen  tons  per  acre,  on 
this  basis,  would  yield  3,460  pounds  of  sugar,  upon  which  the 
bounty  would  be  $17.30.  This  amount,  added  to  net  profit  from 
sale  of  beets,  gives  $37.30  per  acre  clear  to  the  beet  grower.  It  is 
true,  as  we  have  been  told,  that  these  calculations  are  all  on  paper, 
but  there  is  no  reason  why  they  should  not  be  verified  in  practical 
experience. 

These,  then,  are  the  inducements  to  the  farmer  to  engage  in  the 
sugar  beet  industry.  What  inducements  can  be  offered  to  the 
manufacturer?  Anyone  contemplating  the  erection  of  a factory 
will  demand  ( 1 ) beets  of  a satisfactory  quality,  and  plenty  of  them; 
(2)  an  abundance  of  good  water;  (3)  plenty  of  good  limestone; 
(4)  cheap  fuel.  Can  we  satisfy  these  demands? 

( 1 ) There  can  be  no  longer  any  doubt  of  our  ability  to  produce 
satisfactory  beets.  During  the  progress  of  these  experiments  the 
statement  was  circulated  in  certain  sections  of  the  state  that  while 
our  beets  were  rich  in  sugar,  their  purity  was  so  low  that  the  sugar 
would  not  crystallize.  This  statement  is  fully  disproved  by  the 
work  now  completed.  In  factory  operations,  crystallization  is  pre- 
vented by  the  presence  in  the  beet  juice  of  mineral  salts  taken  from 
the  soil.  The  extent  to  which  these  salts  are  present  is  positively 
indicated  by  the  number  expressing  purity.  That  is  to  say,  a beet 
juice  having  a purity  of  80,  has,  among  its  total  solids,  20  per  cent, 
of  matter  not  sugar.  This  20  per  cent,  is  made  up  largely  of  sugars 
other  than  sucrose,  and  mineral  salts.  Now,  when  little  or  no  dif- 
ficulty is  experienced  in  manufacturing  sugar  from  beets  of  80 


Bulletin  15 — Sugar  Beets. 


57 


purity,  it  is  absurd  to  think  those  having  a still  higher  purity 
would  fail  to  give  as  good  results. 

From  the  present  agricultural  conditions  prevailing  in  our  state, 
there  is  scarcely  room  for  any  doubt  about  the  ability  of  the  man- 
ufacturer to  contract  as  many  acres  of  beets  as  he  desires.  We  know 
that  there  are  a number  of  places  in  the  state  where  the  farmers 
are  anxious  to  contract  for  from  5,000  to  10,000  acres. 

(2)  The  question  of  a local  water  supply  will,  in  the  very  na- 
ture of  things,  preclude  the  possibility  of  a sugar  factory  in  some 
sections  of  the  state.  A factory  of  350  tons  daily  capacity  will 
require  about  two  million  gallons  of  water  every  24  hours.  This 
amount  of  water  can  be  easily  supplied  in  many  places  that  can 
also  produce  suitable  beets. 

(3)  We  have  an  abundance  of  unusually  pure  limestone  that  is 
easily  accessible.  One  sample  of  crystalline  limestone  from  Stev- 
ens county,  analyzed  in  our  laboratory,  was  98  per  cent.  pure.  A 
factory  will  use  from  fifteen  to  twenty  tons  daily. 

(4)  The  possibility  of  cheap  fuel  will  be  conditioned  somewhat 
upon  the  location  of  the  factory.  If  all  other  conditions  are  fully 
met,  the  question  of  fuel  supply  will  be  easily  adjusted. 

If  we  are  to  have  sugar  factories  in  Washington,  we  will,  in  all 
probability,  be  obliged  to  face  the  question  of  subsidy  to  capital, 
regardless  of  our  opinion  concerning  the  economic  policy  involved. 

What  a Sugar  Factory  Means  to  a Community. 

It  is  argued  by  some  that  inasmuch  as  a factory  is  not  in  opera- 
tion during  the  entire  year,  employs  less  than  200  men,  and  uses 
the  product  of  less  than  10,000  acres,  that  its  beneficial  effects 
would  be  too  local  to  affect  districts  more  remote  from  it.  Those 
who  have  seen  these  factories  in  operation  are  best  qualified  to 
judge  of  their  effects.  We  quote  the  following  extracts  from  the 
Chino  Champion , written  just  after  the  close  of  the  Chino  fac- 
tory campaign: 

The  manufacturing  campaign  commenced  on  August  2,  and  continued 
with  no  material  interruption  until  October  18  — 78  days.  During  this 
time  there  were  sliced  43,773  tons  of  beets,  net,  for  which  the  factory  paid 
$202,694.54.  Of  this  amount,  $155,455.31  was  for  Chino  beets,  and  $47,239.23 
for  beets  from  Anaheim  and  Buena  Park,  Orange  county,  shipped  in  by  rail. 
This  shows  an  average  price  of  $4.63  for  the  entire  crop,  being  based  on 
an  average  sugar  percentage  of  15.  This  is  a most  remarkable  showing 
for  the  quality  of  the  beets  for  the  entire  season  — better,  we  believe,  than 
has  ever  been  made  at  any  sugar  factory  in  this  country  or  in  Europe. 


58 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


The  total  sugar  output  for  the  season  was  9,471,672  pounds,  or  4,736  tons 
— 473  car  loads.  In  shipping  this  to  the  markets  both  barrels  and  bags 
were  used,  about  12,000  of  the  former  being  turned  out  from  the  cooper 
shop  in  connection  with  the  factory.  In  the  operation  of  the  factory  this 
campaign,  there  have  been  used  1,554,000  gallons,  or  37,000  barrels,  of  oil 
in  the  furnaces,  1,350  tons  of  coke  in  the  lime  kilns,  and  4,485  tons  of  lime- 
stone, besides  250  tons  of  burned  lime  received. 

During  the  campaign  an  average  of  300  men  have  been  on  the  pay  roll, 
and  the  total  wages  paid  were  $65,000.  The  factory  has,  therefore,  put  in 
circulation  direct,  for  beets  and  labor  alone,  $267,684.64  during  the  past 
80  days.  Besides  this,  the  industry  has  put  large  sums  of  money  into  cir- 
culation in  payment  for  oil,  coke,  bags,  barrels,  chemicals,  transportation, 
etc.,  the  influence  of  which  has  reached  and  been  felt  in  many  localities 
all  over  Southern  California.  The  channels  of  trade  have  been  reached 
and  commerce  quickened  by  the  vivifying  touch  of  this,  the  greatest  in- 
dustrial enterprise  in  Southern  California. 

The  Sacramento  Bee  gives  the  following  statements  regarding 
the  amount  of  money  put  in  circulation  by  a 334-ton  plant: 

Totals  — Seventy-seven  men  during  factory  campaign,  $21,018;  43  me  n 
employed  by  the  year,  $45,660.  Total  paid  in  wages  at  factory,  $66,678. 

To  produce  40,080  tons  of  beets,  sufficient  for  120  days’  campaign,  as- 
suming that  the  farmer  produces  twelve  tons  to  the  acre,  which  only  runs 
14  per  cent,  saccharine  matter,  they  will  have  cost  to  raise,  $2.07  per  ton. 
Actual  cost  of  labor,  $1.50  ton;  seed,  $2.16  acre,  18  cents  ton;  rent  land, 
$10  acre,  83i  cents  ton;  delivery  to  factory,  50  cents  ton;  interest  on  farm- 
ing tools,  etc.,  5£  cents  ton;  total  cost  per  ton  beets,  $2.07;  40,080  multi- 
plied by  $2.07  equals  $82,965.60;  total  labor  account,  about  $150,000.  To 
this  you  can  add  20,000  tons  lone  coal  at  $1.75,  $35,000;  288  tons  coke  from 
your  gas  company  at  $8,  $2,304;  2,400  tons  lime  rock  from  Folsom  at  $2, 
$4,800;  total,  $42,104. 

A sum  of  $200,000  is  not  far  from  what  a factory  would  pay  out  to  labor 
for  a capacity  treating  334  tons  of  beets  each  day  for  120  days. 

Perhaps  it  would  be  well  to  consider  how  much  profit  there  would  be 
to  the  producers  of  these  beets.  Forty  thousand  and  eighty  tons  at  $3.50 
per  ton  for  12  per  cent,  beets,  and  forty  cents  for  each  1 per  cent,  there- 
after, would  be  $4.30  a ton,  or  a clear  profit  to  the  raiser  of  $2.23  a ton, 
after  paying  $10  an  acre  rent  for  his  land.  On  the  year’s  crop  there  would 
be  $89,398.40  in  profit  to  the  farmers. 

On  an  average  I find  that  one  man  attends  ten  acres  of  beets,  and  the 
average  for  each  ten  acres  is  three  persons,  making  about  1,000  inhab- 
itants sustained  directly  by  a 334-ton  factory. 

Status  of  the  Beet  Sugar  Industry  in  the  United  States. 

We  are  indebted  to  the  report  of  the  commission  of  internal  rev- 
enue, sugar  bounty  division,  for  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30, 
1894,  for  the  following  statistical  tables: 


Bulletin  15 — Sugar  Beets . 


59 


Quantity  of  beets  used  and  sugar  produced  by  the  licensed  beet  sugar 
producers  during  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1894,  and  also  the 
average  yield  of  sugar  per  acre  and  per  ton  of  beets  used: 


Names  and  locations  of  sugar  pro- 
ducers. 

Beets  used.* 

Sugar  pro- 
duced.f 

YIELD  OF  SUGAR. 

4 

p 

ST® 

8 3 
sr 

California  : 

Chino  Vn.lley  Beet  Sugar  Co 

Acres. 

4,171 

1,803 

6,388 

Tons. 

49.353.8 

20.324.9 
65,291.6 

Lbs. 

15,063,367 

4,486,572 

15,539,040 

Lbs. 

3.611.4 

2.488.4 

2.432.5 

Lbs. 

305.2 

220.7 

238.0 

Alameda,  Sugar  Co 

Western  Beet  Sugar  Co 

Total  and  av.  yield  in  Calfornia.. 

Utah : 

The  Utah  Sugar  Co 

12,362 

134,970.3 

35,088,969 

2,838.5 

260.0 

2,755 

26,801.0 

4,108,500 

1,491.3 

153.3 

Nebraska : 

Oxnard  Beet  Sugar  Co 

1,671 

2,807 

11,149.0 

22,625.5 

1,835,900 

4,107,300 

1,098.7 

1,463.2 

164.7 

181.5 

Norfolk  Beet  Sugar  Co 

Total  and  av.  yield  in  Nebraska.. 
Virginia: 

O.  K.  Lapham  & Co 

4,478 

33,774.5 

5,943,200 

1,327.2 

176.0 

50 

350.0 

50,627 

1,012.5 

144.6 

Grand  total  and  average  yield... 

19,645 

195,895.8 

45,191,296 

2,300.4 

230.7 

*Of  the  beets  used,  22,051.1  tons,  embracing  an  area  of  2,878  acres,  were  cultivated  by 
the  licensed  sugar  producers  themselves,  while  173,844.7  tons,  covering  an  area  of  16,767 
acres,  were  purchased  by  the  sugar  producers  from  contractors  and  neighboring  farmers. 

f A small  quantity  of  the  sugar  produced  was  extracted  from  molasses  carried  over 
from  the  prior  fiscal  year,  but  as  this  additional  production  is  about  offset  by  sugar-pro- 
ducing material  on  hand  June  30, 1894,  it  will  not  affect  the  correctness  of  the  above  com- 
putations. 

Periods  of  operation  and  the  average  number  of  employes  in  such  periods 
at  the  sugar  factories  of  the  licensed  beet  sugar  producers  during  the 
fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1894: 


Names  and  locations  of  sugar  producers. 

PERIODS  OF  OPERATION  AT  FACTORIES.* 

Average  number 
of  employes 

Date  of 
opening... 

Date  of 
final 

closing .... 

Actual 
number 
of  days  in 
operation , 

California : 

Chino  Valley  Beet  Sugar  Co 

July  31,  1893 

Nov.  4,  1893 

97 

149 

Alameda  Sugar  Co 

Sept.  18,  1893 

Dec.  19,  1893 

93 

93 

Western  Beet  Sugar  Co 

Sept.  14,  1893 

Jan.  14,  1894 

123 

190 

Utah : 

The  Utah  Sugar  Co 

Sept.  19,  1893 

May  24,  1894 

102 

113 

Nebraska : 

Oxnard  Beet  Sugar  Co 

Oct.  11,  1893 

Nov.  28,  1893 

49 

184 

Norfolk  Beet  Sugar  Co 

Aug.  29,  1893 

Jan.  12,  1894 

122 

206 

Virginia : 

O.  K.  Lapham  & Co 

Aug.  22,  1893 

May  1,  1894 

27 

60 

Total 

613 

995 

Average  number  of  days  in  operation 

and  of  employes  at  each  factory 

87.6 

142.1 

* All  the  beet  sugar  factories  were  operated  at  intervals  both  night  and  day  during  the 
periods  stated,  and  the  average  number  of  employes  given  includes  both  night  and  day 
shifts  of  persons  employed. 


60 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


Quantity  of  granulated  sugar  estimated  to  be  produced  from  masse  cuite, 
yellow  sugar  and  molasses  on  hand  at  the  factories  of  the  licensed 
beet  sugar  producers  June  30,  1894: 


Names  and  locations  of  sugar  producers. 

Estimated 

production. 

California : 

Chino  Valley  Beet  Sugar  Co 

Pounds. 

948,033 

1,108,367 

149,943 

108,500 

557,031 

85,245 

None. 

Alameda  Sugar  Co 

Western  Beet  Sugar  Co 

Utah: 

The  Utah  Sugar  Co 

Nebraska : 

Oxnard  Beet  Sugar  Co 

Norfolk  Beet  Sugar  Co 

Virginia : 

O.  TC.  Lapham  A.  Co 

Total 

2,957,119 

Quantity  and  class  of  beet  sugar  produced  and  the  amount  of  bounty  paid 
thereon  to  the  licensed  sugar  producers  during  the  fiscal  year  ending 
June  30,  1894: 


Names  and  locations  of  sugar  pro- 
ducers. 

SUGAR  PRODUCED. 

Bounty  paid. 

Testing  less 
than  80  deg. 

Testing  less 
than  90  deg., 
but  not  less 
than  80  deg. 

Testing  not 
less  than 
90  deg. 

California : 

Chino  Valiev  Beet  Sugar  CIo 

Pounds. 

23,490 

Pounds. 

15,039,867 

Pounds. 

$263,197  66 
a 86,797  28 
305,773  90 

Alameda  Sugar  Co 

4,486,572 

13,536,286 

Western  Beet  Sugar  Co 

2,002,754 

Total  California 

23,490 

17,042,621 

18,022,858 

$655,768  84 

Utah : 

The  Utah  Sugar  Co 

4,108,500 

6 $77, 542  00 

Nebraska : 

Oxnard  Beet  Sugar  Co 

1,835,900 

4,107,300 

$36,718  00 
82,146  00 

Norfolk  Beet  Sugar  Co 

Total  Nebraska 

5,943,200 

$118,864  00 

Virginia: 

O.  K.  Lapham  & Co 

19,091 

31,536 

(c) 

Grand  total 

23,490 

17,061,712 

28,106,094 

$852,174  84 

a Balance  due  July  1, 1894 $2,934  16 

6 Balance  due  July  1,  1894 4,628  00 

c Amount  allowed  August  4,  1894 494  83 


a Balance  due  July  1, 1894 $2,934  16 

6 Balance  due  July  1,  1894 4,628  00 

c Amount  allowed  August  4,  1894 494  83 


Total $8,056  99 

Amount  paid 852,174  84 


Total  bounty  on  beet  sugar  crop  of  1893-94 $860,231  83 


cThe  amount  of  bounty  claimed  by  O.  K.  Lapham  & Co.  was  reduced  $469.98,  covering 
23,499  pounds  of  sugar  testing  not  less  than  90  deg.,  which  was  granulated  from  syrup  pro- 
duced without  license  and  government  supervision. 


Bulletin  15 — Sugar  Beets. 


61 


RECAPITULATION. 

Licenses  issued,  the  quantity  of  cane,  beet,  sorghum  and  maple  sugar  of- 
ficially returned,  and  the  amount  of  bounty  and  number  of  claims 
paid  on  these  four  kinds  of  sugar  during  the  fiscal  year  ending  June 
30,  1894: 


Kind  of  sugar. 

Licenses 
issued 

Sugar 

officially 

returned.... 

Net  bounty 
paid 

Claims 
involved 

Cane  sugar 

579 

7 

2 

5,761 

Pounds. 

611,156,922 

45,191,296 

882,572 

7,633,608 

$11,114,599  89 
852,174  84 
17,312  26 
116,121  90 

3,246 

62 

10 

4,628 

Beet  sugar 

Sorghum  sugar 

Maple  sugar 

Total 

6,349 

664,864,398 

$12,100,208  89 

7,946 

Net  amount  of  bounty  paid,  by  fiscal  years,  on  each  kind  of  sugar  during 
the  existence  of  the  bounty  law: 


Sugar  on  which 
bounty  was 
paid. 

Net  bounty  paid  in  fiscal  year  ending 
June  30  — 

Net  bounty 
paid  from 
July  1 to 
August  27, 
189U. 

Total  bounty 
paid. 

1892. 

1893. 

1894. 

Cane  sugar 

$7,077,316  21 
240,098  56 
22,197  28 
2,465  74 

$8,763,830  75 
531,363  81 
19,817  00 
60,119  32 

$11,114,599  89 
852,174  84 
17,312  26 
116,121  90 

$957,644  41 
8,056  99 
129  50 
354  94 

$27,913,391  26 
1,631,694  20 
59,456  04 
179,061  90 

Beet  sugar 

Sorghum  sugar 

Maple  sugar 

Grand  total 

$7,342,077  79 

$9,375,130  88 

$12,100,208  89 

$966,185  84 

$29,783,603  40 

We  have  obtained  by  correspondence  the  following  approximate 
statistics  concerning  the  crop  of  1894: 


Tons  of 
beets  used. 

Pounds  of 
sugar 
made. 

Norfolk,  Nebraska 

27,500 

125,000 

43,773 

33,000 

39,769 

5,500,000 

Watsonville,  California 

Chino,  California 

9,471,672 

5,500,000 

5,910,095 

Lehi  Utah 

Alvarado,  California 

In  conclusion,  we  wish  to  express  our  thanks  to  any  and  all  who 
have  given  us  aid  and  cooperation  in  this  work.  Especially  have 
we  appreciated  the  favors  extended  by  the  press,  and  by  the  differ- 
ent lines  of  railroad  operating  in  the  state. 


62 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


SUMMARY. 


Sugar  beet  seed  was  distributed  last  spring  to  1,015  farmers, 
representing  every  county  in  the  state  except  Okanogan. 

Sample  beets  for  analysis  were  received  from  384  different  par- 
ties, representing  27  counties. 

Seventeen  hundred  ( 1,700 ) samples  were  analyzed,  coming  from 
101  different  towns  — 45  being  west  of  the  Cascade  mountains,  and 
56  in  Eastern  Washington. 

The  general  state  average  of  1,666  analyses  was  as  follows: 
Weight,  25  ounces;  sugar,  14.2  per  cent.;  purity,  82.6. 

The  elimination  of  122  analyses  of  a variety  wholly  unadapted 
to  our  state,  gives  for  1,544  analyses  the  following  averages: 
Weight , 22  ounces sugar , 15.2  per  cent;  purity , 83.8. 

These  results  demonstrate  that  Washington  can  produce  sugar 
beets  of  a very  superior  quality. 

Sugar  beet  culture  will  be  a very  profitable  industry  for  the 
farmer  to  engage  in  if  he  can  find  a market  for  his  beets. 

We  have  many  inducements  to  capital  to  establish  factories  in 
the  state. 

The  establishment  of  the  beet  sugar  industry  will  have  a far- 
reaching,  stimulating,  and  beneficial  effect  upon  our  state. 


U'W.  / f / 6 


WASHINGTON  STATE  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE  AND 
SCHOOL  OF  SCIENCE 


Experiment  Station 

PULLMAN,  WASHINGTON 


Bulletin  16 


DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE 

FEEDING  EXPERIMENT  NO.  1 

FEEDING  WHEAT  TO  HOGS 
By  W.  J.  Spillman 


MARCH,  1895 


All  bulletins  of  this  station  are  sent  free  to  citizens  of  the  state  on 
application  to  the  Director. 


THE  CALVERT  COMPANY,  716  FRONT  ST.,  SEATTLE. 


THE  AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 

HOARD  OF  CONTROL. 


Charles  R.  Conner,  President , Spokane 

T.  R.  Tannatt,  Vice  President , Farmington 

J.  W.  Stearns,  Treasurer Tekoa 

E.  S.  Ingraham,  Seattle 

H.  S.  Beandford, Walla  Walla 

STATION  STAFF. 

Enoch  A.  Bryan, Director 

W.  J.  Spieeman, Agriculturist 

C.  V.  Piper, Botanist  and  Entomologist 

Elton  Fulmer,  Chemist 

John  A.  Balmer, Horticulturist 

Clarence  C.  Fletcher, Assistant  Chemist 


FEEDING  EXPERIMENT  NO.  1. 


FEEDING  WHEAT  TO  HOGS. 


W.  J.  Spittman. 

In  view  of  the  recent  wide  spread  interest  in  the  feeding  of 
wheat,  an  experiment  has  been  carried  on  at  this  station  during 
the  past  winter,  with  a view  to  ascertaining  the  best  method  of 
feeding  wheat  to  hogs.  Incidentally,  several  other  things  of  more 
or  less  importance  have  been  brought  out  by  this  experiment. 
They  will  be  discussed  in  the  following  pages. 

The  experiment  was  tried  under  .such  conditions  as  can  be 
easily  duplicated  on  any  ordinary  farm.  The  hogs  used  were 
grade  Poland-Chinas  and  grade  Berkshires,  bought  of  a neigh- 
boring farmer  when  small  pigs.  Their  exact  ages  are  unknown 
to  the  writer.  At  the  beginning  of  the  experiment  the  average 
weight  of  the  lot  was  197^  pounds,  varying  from  131^2  to  243^ 
pounds,  so  that  it  may  be  said  that  the  experiment  was  under- 
taken after  the  hogs  had  reached  the  usual  limit  of  profitable 
feeding. 

Previous  to  the  experiment  the  hogs  were  fed  kitchen  slops, 
and  whole  wheat  soaked  in  water.  They  had  made  good  growth 
on  this  feed,  and  at  the  beginning  of  the  experiment  were  in  good 
condition,  except  that  two  or  three  of  them  were  coughing.  Dur- 
ing the  56  days  of  the  experiment  they  ate  nothing  but  wheat, 
with  what  wood  ashes  and  salt  they  would  consume.  Within  a 


4 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


week  after  the  experiment  began  the.  coughing  ceased,  and  every 
hog  in  the  thirteen  remained  in  apparently  perfect  health,  and 
made  fair  gains  till  the  end  (except  when  on  sheaf  wheat,  as 
noted  later) . 

On  October  20th  the  hogs  were  weighed  and  divided  into  four 
lots,  the  average  weight  in  each  lot  being  made  as  nearly  equal 
as  possible.  The  following  table  shows  the  weights,  sex,  and 
number  of  hogs  in  each  lot,  and  the  average  weight  of  each  lot : 


LOT  I. 

Pig  No.  2,  sow 182  pounds. 

Pig  No.  7,  sow 196  pounds. 

Pig  No.  12,  barrow.  .205  pounds. 

Average 194  l 2 3 4 5A  pounds. 


LOT  II. 

Pig  No.  8,  sow 207^!  pounds. 

Pig  No.  14,  barrow.  .220%  pounds. 
Pig  No.  16,  barrow.  . 163  pounds. 

Average. . . . ....  197  pounds. 


LOT  III. 

Pig  No.  5,  barrow.  . .233  pounds. 

Pig  No.  9,  sow 178  pounds. 

Pig  No.  15,  sow 174  pounds. 


Average 195  pounds. 


LOT  IV. 

Pig  No.  10,  sow 191  pounds. 

Pig  No.  11,  barrow  .237  pounds. 

Pig  No.  13,  barrow.  .217^  pounds. 
Pig  No.  34,  sow  ....  137  pounds. 

Average 195^5  pounds. 


The  time  of  the  experiment  was  divided  into  three  periods,  as 
follows  : 


Period  1.  October  23d  to  November  7th 15  days 

Period  2.  November  7th  to  November  27.  . . . 20  days 

Period  3.  November  27th  to  December  18th 21  clays 


Tests  were  made  with  wheat  fed  in  five  different  ways,  as  fol- 
lows : 

1.  Whole  wheat,  dry. 

2.  Whole  wheat,  soaked  12  hours  in  water. 

3.  Chopped  wheat,  dry. 

4.  Chopped  wheat,  soaked  12  hours  in  water. 

5.  Sheaf  wheat. 

The  first  of  these  rations  was  tried  on  two  of  the  lots  ; so  also 
the  second,  and  fifth.  The  third  and  fourth  rations  were  tried  on 
three  lots. 

The  above  facts  are  exhibited  in  tho  following  table  : 


Bulletin  16 — Feeding  Wheat  to  Hogs 


5 


TABLE  I. 


Periods 

Whole 
Wheat  Dry 

Whole 

Wheat 

Soaked 

Chopped 

Wheat 

Dry 

Chopped 

Wheat 

Soaked 

Sheaf 

Wheat 

1. 

Lot  I. 

Lot  II. 

Lot  III. 

Lot  IV. 

2. 

Lot  I. 

Lot  II. 

Lot  III. 

Lot  IV. 

3- 

Lot  IV. 

Lot  I. 

Lot  II. 

Lot  III. 

Each  lot  of  pigs  was  placed  in  a pen  containing  about  four 
square  rods.  In  one  side  of  each  pen  was  a small  house  for 
shelter,  open  only  on  the  east  side.  In  each  pen  was  a platform 
large  enough  for  the  hogs  to  stand  on  comfortabljq  and  on  this 
was  a feeding  trough,  and  also  a watering  trough  in  those  pens 
where  dry  grain  was  the  feed.  The  troughs  were  flat  bottomed, 
six  inches  deep.  Strips  of  wood  were  nailed  from  the  outer  edge 
of  the  trough  to  the  fence,  to  prevent  the  hogs  from  getting  into 
the  trough.  This  is  the  most  satisfactory  of  any  *of  the  plans 
for  hog-feeding  tried  by  the  writer.  The  waste  was  small,  and 
the  food  was  not  mixed  with  mud  from  the  pigs’  feet. 

The  food  wasted  by  the  hogs  was  no  more  than  seems  unavoid- 
able ; and  as  the  object  was  to  ascertain  how  much  pork  could  be 
produced  from  a bushel  of  wheat  under  practical  conditions,  no 
account  was  taken  of  the  waste.  Food  not  eaten  was  left  in  the 
trough  till  next  feeding,  when  a smaller  amount  was  given.  Dur- 
ing the  entire  experiment  the  hogs  were  fed  all  they  would  eat. 

The  amount  of  wheat  fed  in  the  sheaf  was  estimated  as  fol- 
lows : at  threshing  time,  three  separate  observations  were  made 
as  to  the  amount  of  wheat  in  ioo  bundles  (ordinary  twine-bound 
bundles) . The  wheat  in  the  three  lots  of  ioo  bundles  each  was 
439,  431  and  454  pounds  respectively;  average,  441.3;  or  4.413 
pounds  of  wheat  per  bundle. 


6 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


The  hogs  were  fed  twice  a day,  7:00  a.  m.,  and  6:00  p.  m.,  all 
they  would  eat,  and  were  watered  three  times  a day. 

By  referring  to  Table  I,  it  will  be  seen  that  at  the  end  of  period 
1 , lot  II  was  taken  off  whole  wheat  diet  and  put  on  chopped 
wheat.  The  same  occurred  to  lot  I,  at  the  end  of  period  2.  In 
both  these  cases  there  was  a marked  falling  off  in  the  rate  of 
gain  for  several  days,  undoubtedly  due  to  the  fact  that  the 
chopped  wheat  when  first  fed  acted  as  a physic.  It  was  noted 
during  the  whole  of  the  experiment  that  hogs  on  whole  wheat 
tended  towards  constipated  condition  of  the  bowels,  while  those 
on  chopped  wheat,  and  especially  those  on  sheaf  wheat,  were  in 
the  opposite  condition.  In  the  case  of  hogs  on  chopped  wheat, 
this  loss  at  first  was  soon  more  than  regained  in  rapid  growth. 
For  this  reason,  the  first  five  days  of  Period  2,  and  the  first  six 
days  of  Period  3 (six  days  in  the  latter  case  because  of  inability 
to  weigh  the  hogs  on  the  previous  day),  are  considered  as  prelim- 
inary, leaving  the  experimental  parts  15  days  in  each  of  the  three 
periods. 

The  following  table  exhibits  the  actual  gains  per  head  of  each 
* 

lot  during  each  of  the  three  periods  : 

TABLE  II. 


Periods 

Whole 

Wheat 

Dry 

Whole 

Wheat 

Soaked 

Chopped 

Wheat 

Dry 

Chopped 

Wheat 

Soaked 

Sheaf 

Wheat 

1. 

14.9  Lbs. 

17.2  Lbs. 

26.9  Lbs. 

21.8  Lbs. 

2. 

22.7  Lbs. 

23.2  Lbs. 

23.1  Lbs. 

5-5  Lbs. 

3- 

15.5  Lbs. 

27.2  Lbs. 

20.3  Lbs. 

2.2  Lbs. 

Averages 

. 15.20  Lbs. 

19.95  Lbs. 

25.76  Lbs. 

21.73  Lbs. 

3.85  Lbs. 

Table  III  shows  the  gains  in  pounds  of  pork  per  bushel  of 
wheat  eaten  : 


Bulletin  16 — Feeding  Wheat  to  Hogs 


7 


TABLE  III. 


Periods. 

Whole 

Wheat 

Dry 

Whole 

Wheat 

Soaked 

Chopped 

Wheat 

Dry 

Chopped 

Wheat 

Soaked 

' 

Sheaf 

Wheat 

1. 

9.7  Lbs. 

9.1  Lbs. 

12.7  Lbs. 

1 1.9  Lbs. 

2. 

1 1.3  Lbs. 

12.4  Lbs. 

1 1.8  Lbs. 

3-7  Lbs. 

3- 

9.1  Lbs. 

1 14.2  Lbs 

10.3  Lbs. 

1.9  Lbs. 

Averages 

9.4  Lbs. 

10.2  Lbs. 

1 13. 1 Lbs. 

1 1.^3  Lbs. 

2.8  Lbs. 

The  uniformity  of  the  results  in  each  of  these  three  periods  is 
such  as  to  give  some  measure  of  confidence  in  their  correctness. 
It  is,  however,  probable  that  the  results  obtained  from  the 
chopped  wheat  dry  are  a little  higher  than  they  would  have  been 
had  the  arrangement  of  the  feeds  and  periods  been  different.  As 
above  stated,  when  hogs  were  placed  on  a diet  of  chopped  wheat 
they  lost  for  a few  days  in  rate  of  gain,  in  several  instances  in 
actual  weight,  and  then  during  a few  succeeding  days  the  gain 
would  be  unusually  rapid.  The  preliminary  periods  of  five  days 
before  period  2,  and  six  days  before  period  3 were  intended  to 
counteract  both  these  effects,  but  the  writer  is  now  of  the  opinion 
that  the  preliminary  periods  should  have  been  longer.  However, 
these  remarks  do  not  apply  to  any  of  the  other  four  rations.  The 
results  with  each  of  them  are  believed  to  be  not  far  from  what  will 
be  found  in  actual  practice. 

Another  experiment  will  be  undertaken  during  the  present  year 
to  ascertain  the  relative  value  of  dry  and  soaked  chopped  wheat 
as  a hog  feed. 

It  may  be  remarked  that  the  high  result  with  soaked  whole 
wheat  during  period  2 is  probably  due  largely  to  the  individuality 
of  the  lot  of  hogs.  During  the  last  five  days  of  the  preceeding 
period,  when  they  were  on  dry  whole  wheat,  they  made  excellent 
gains  and  kept  up  these  gains  during  the  entire  time  of  period  2. 


8 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


Kind  of  Wheat  Used. 

With  the  exception  of  the  sheaf  wheat,  the  wheat  used  in  this 
experiment  was  from  the  crop  of  1893,  and  was  so  badly  infested 
with  stinking  smut  that  local  grain  dealers  would  not  buy  it,  nor 
would  the  local  mills  grind  it  lor  us.  Yet,  during  the  entire  56 
days  of  the  experiment  every  one  of  the  1 3 hogs  has  been  in  ex- 
cellent health,  except  that  some  were  coughing  when  the  experi- 
ment began,  as  before  noted. 

Wheat  and  Corn  Compared. 

These  hogs  appear  to  have  made  large  growth  of  bone  and 
muscle.  Their  food  has  not  gone  much  to  fat,  and  they  do  not 
present  the  waddling  appearance  of  corn  fed  hogs.  While  their 
gains  have  been  fairly  satisfactory,  the  heaviest  are  able  to  carry 
their  flesh  easily  ; in  fact,  the  best  one  of  the  13  is  perhaps  most 
active  at  the  close  of  the  experiment,  and  is  not  uncomfortably 
fat.  There  is  little  doubt  that  these  hogs,  after  having  their 
frame-work  and  muscles  largely  developed  by  wheat  feed,  would 
make  better  gains  in  the  future  on  a more  carbonaceous  food,  like 
corn  meal.  This  experiment  is  not  meant  to  demonstrate  that 
wheat  is  the  best  feed  for  hogs,  nor  even  that  it  is  a good  feed, 
but  to  ascertain  in  what  manner  it  should  be  fed  to  make  most 
economical  gains. 

Sheaf  Wheat. 

In  this  experiment,  hogs  that  were  changed  from  chopped 
wheat  to  sheaf  invariably  lost  rapidly  in  weight,  even  when  fed 
largely  in  excess  of  what  they  could  eat.  After  a few  days,  how- 
ever, they  reached  a level,  near  which  they  remained.  It  was 
demonstrated  that  hogs  may  be  kept  in  fair  condition,  and  poor 
hogs  may  be  made  to  gain  when  fed  sheaf  wheat,  but  it  can  not 
be  doubted  that  feeding  sheaf  wheat  even  to  stock  hogs,  is  waste- 
ful in  the  extreme.  Headed  wheat  would  undoubtedly  do  better, 
.and  this  will  be  given  a trial  during  the  next  season.  It  is  eco- 
nomical for  a farmer  to  keep  hogs  to  glean  a wheat  field  after  the 
crop  has  been  removed,  for  the  growth  so  made  is  utilization  of  a 
waste,  but  to  cut  wheat,  straw  and  all,  and  feed  them  is  not  to  be 
recommended. 

Chopped  vs.  Whole  Grain. 

From  table  III  it  will  be  seen  that  whole  wheat  fed  dry  made 
on  an  average  9.4  pounds  of  pork  per  bushel  of  wheat  eaten. 


Bulletin  16 — Feeding  Wheat  to  Hogs, 


9 


Whole  wheat  soaked  12  hours  in  water  made  10.2  pounds  of  pork 
per  bushel.  The  average  of  these  two  figures  is  9.8  pounds. 
Chopped  wheat  fed  dry  made  on  an  average  13. 1 pounds,  and  the 
same  soaked  1 2 hours  in  water  made  1 1 . 3 pounds  of  pork  per 
bushel  eaten.  The  average  of  these  figures  is  12.2  pounds. 
Here  then  is  a difference  of  2.4  pounds  of  pork  per  bushel  eaten 
in  favor  of  grinding  the  grain.  Under  ordinary  conditions  this 
will  more  than  pay  for  grinding. 

It  may  be  well  to  state  that  the  grain  in  this  experiment  was 
ground  as  coarsely  as  convenient.  It  has  been  reported  to  me  by 
farmers  who  have  fed  finely  ground  wheat,  that  the  hogs  wTere 
troubled  with  indige.stion.  Sufficient  data  are  not  at  hand  to  set- 
tle this  question.  I11  the  present  experiment,  with  coarsely 
ground  wheat  no  trouble  of  any  kind  was  experienced,  except  as 
before  noted — when  hogs  were  changed  from  whole  wheat  diet  to 
chopped  wdieat  the  feed  invariably  physiced  them  for  a few  days. 

Effect  of  Soaking  the  Feed. 

In  feeding  whole  wheat  to  hogs,  whether  fed  dry  or  soaked  12 
hours  in  water,  large  amounts  of  the  feed  came  through  in  the 
manure  undigested.  The  fact  that  the  soaked  wheat  made  better 
gains  than  the  dry,  however,  seems  to  indicate  that  soaking 
whole  wheat  increases  its  digestibility.  On  the  other  hand, 
chopped  wheat  did  better  dry  than  soaked.  As  explained  above, 
this  may  be  due  to  the  fact  that  unusual  gains  were  recorded  for 
a few  days  after  the  loss  occasioned  by  changing  from  whole  to 
chopped  feed,  and  the  experiment  was  so  arranged  that  this  would 
affect  only  the  dry  chop.  Yet,  as  before  stated,  each  period  was 
preceded  by  a preliminary  period  of  5 or  6 days,  in  order  to  avoid 
error  due  to  change  of  feed.  There  is  another  possible  explana- 
tion of  this  result.  Wheat  is  largely  starch,  and  saliva  is  one  of 
the  juices  that  digest  starch.  In  eating  dry  grain  more  saliva  is 
swallowed  than  in  eating  soaked  grain,  and  hence  the  food  is  more 
completely  digested.  This  would  not  apply  so  forcibly  in  the  case 
of  whole  wheat ; for  while  more  saliva  would  be  swallowed  in  eat- 
ing it  dry,  the  dry  whole  grains  would  not  be  permeated  by  the 
saliva  to  any  great  extent. 

For  those  who  desire  to  examine  the  details  of  the  experiment 
they  are  given  in  the  self-explanatory  tables  which  follow: 


TABLE  IV. 


10 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


TABLE  VI.— LOT  III. 


Bulletin  16 — Feeding  Wheat  to  Hogs. 


1 1 


12 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


Summary. 

1.  Feeding  sheaf  wheat  to  hogs  is  a wasteful  practice;  even 
under  the  best  conditions  a large  amount  of  grain  is  wasted  ; and 
the  hogs  can  not  find  enough  grain  to  fatten  on  rapidly.  Feeding 
headed  wheat  would  doubtless  be  less  wasteful,  but  data  are  not 
yet  at  hand  for  determining  this  point. 

2.  Soaking  whole  wheat  in  water  for  12  hours  increases  its 
digestibility,  so  that  it  will  produce  about  one  pound  more  pork 
per  bushel  eaten. 

3.  Wheat  coarsely  chopped  and  fed  either  dry  or  soaked  12 
hours  in  water,  gives  larger  returns  than  whole  wheat.  Under 
the  conditions  of  this  experiment,  the  increase  was  sufficient  to 
more  than  pay  for  the  chopping. 

4.  Dry  chopped  wheat  gave  a larger  yield  of  pork  than  soaked 
chop,  but  this  may  have  been  due  to  the  order  in  which  the  feeds 
were  given  each  lot. 

5.  With  hogs  weighing  less  than  250  pounds,  a bushel  of 
chopped  wheat  will  produce  about  12  pounds  of  pork  ; hence, 

If  it  costs  ap/z  cents  a bushel  to  chop  wheat,  it  pays  to  feed 
wheat  to.  hogs  when  the  following  prices  obtain  : 

Pork  3 cents,  and  wheat  less  than  31  cents. 

Pork  3^2  cents,  and  wheat  less  than  37^  cents. 

Pork  4 cents,  and  wheat  less  than  43/4  cents. 

Pork  4/4  cents,  and  wheat  less  than  49/4  cents. 

Pork  5 cents,  and  wheat  less  than  55 }4  cents. 

6.  With  wheat  at  24  cents  a bushel,  pork  can  be  produced'  at 
a cost  of  2/4  cents  a pound.  Wheat  at  19^4  cents  a bushel  pro- 
duces pork  at  a cost  of  2 cents  a pound. 


J / / S’? 6 


WASHINGTON  STATE  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE  AND 
SCHOOL  OE  SCIENCE 


Experiment  Station 


PULLMAN,  WASHINGTON 


Bulletin  17 


All  bulletins  of  this  station  are  sent  free  to  citizens  of  the  state  on 
application  to  the  Director 


Department  of  Botany  and  Zoology 


INSECT  PESTS  OF  THE  GARDEN,  FARM  AND  ORCHARD 


By  C.  V.  Piper 


1895 


SEATTLE),  WASH. 

THE)  CALVERT  COMPANY 
1895 


WASHINGTON  STATE  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE  AND 
SCHOOL  OF  SCIENCE 


Experiment  Station 


PULLMAN,  WASHINGTON 


Bulletin  17 


All  bulletins  of  this  station  are  sent  free  to  citizens  of  the  state  on 
application  to  the  Director 


Department  of  Botany  and  Zoology 

INSECT  PESTS  OF  THE  GARDEN,  FARM  AND  ORCHARD 

By  C.  V.  Piper 


1895 


SEATTLE,  WASH. 

THE  CALVERT  COMPANY 

1895 


THE  AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 


BOARD  OF  CONTROL. 


T.  R.  Tannatt,  President , Farmington 

J.  W.  Stearns,  Treasurer , Tekoa 

E.  S.  Ingraham,  Vice  President , Seattle 

H.  S.  Beandford, Walla  Walla 

J.  W.  Arrasmith, Colfax 

STATION  STAFF. 

Enoch  A.  Bryan, Director 

W.  J.  Spillman, Agriculturist 

C.  V.  Piper, Botanist  and  Entomologist 

Eeton  Fuemer,  Chemist 

John  A.  Baemer, Horticulturist 

Clarence  C.  Fletcher, Assistant  Chemist 


INTRODUCTION. 


The  main  object  of  the  present  bulletin  is  to  furnish  information  on  the 
more  common  injurious  insects  of  the  state,  and  such  others  recently  in- 
troduced which  threaten  to  become  serious  pests.  The  need  of  this  infor- 
mation has  been  well  shown  in  the  amount  of  correspondence  received  rel- 
ative to  nearly  every  insect  described  herein,  and  which  has  added  not  a 
little  to  the  work  of  the  entomologist. 

Nearly  all  of  our  common  destructive  insects  have  been  introduced  from 
other  states  ; such  of  them  as  are  native  are  for  the  most  part  the  same  or 
closely  related  species  to  those  that  have  long  been  studied  and  combatted 
in  other  states.  Consequently  only  a relatively  small  portion  of  the  in- 
formation presented  here  is  original. 

The  form  in  which  the  subject  matter  is  arranged  is  the  same  as  that  used 
by  Mr.  V.  L.  Kellogg  in  his  “ Injurious  Insects  of  Kansas.”  It  is  adopted 
first  because  for  the  use  of  most  farmers  and  orchardists  it  furnishes  the 
easiest  and  quickest  way  to  identify  a pest;  second,  under  “ Washington 
Notes”  we  are  able  to  give  separately  the  history  of  each  in  this  state,  and 
to  make  special  suggestions. 

To  render  the  identification  of  insects  more  easy,  those  described  here 
are  numbered,  and  a host  index  given  showing  which  insects  are  to  be 
found  on  each  particular  plant.  It  is  not  to  be  supposed  that  all  the  in- 
jurious insects  of  the  state  are  treated  of  in  this  bulletin.  There  is  a large 
number  both  of  native  and  introduced  insects,  each  of  which  does  slight 
damage  every  year,  and  in  the  case  of  a few,  serious  damage  in  some  sea- 
sons. Many  of  these  will  be  described  in  another  bulletin  soon  to  be 
issued. 

A thorough  knowledge  of  all  our  injurious  insects  can  soonest  be  ob- 
tained with  the  earnest  co-operation  of  all  the  farmers  and  orchardists  in 
the  state,  and  we  cordially  invite  correspondence  concerning  any  insect, 
injurious,  beneficial,  or  otherwise,  and  such  correspondence  will  always  re- 
ceive prompt  attention.  Inquiries  concerning  insects  should  be  accom- 
panied by  specimens,  the  more  the  better. 


4 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


DIRECTIONS  FOR  SENDING  INSECTS. 

Adult  insects  should  first  be  killed,  which  can  best  be  done  by 
putting  them  in  a tight  jar  with  a few  drops  of  chloroform.  Then 
place  the  specimens  in  a close  tin  or  wooden  box,  packing  them 
in  cotton  or  some  other  soft  material,  so  that  they  will  not  be 
broken. 

All  larval  forms  should  be  sent  alive,  care  being  taken  to  put 
with  it  a supply  of  its  food  plant,  enough  to  last  at  least  two  days. 
Do  not  punch  holes  in  the  box,  as  insects  require  very  little  air. 
If  it  is  not  convenient  to  send  the  larva  alive,  kill  it  in  alcohol 
and  pack  in  cotton  saturated  with  alcohol . The  mailing  rate  on 
all  packages  of  insects  is  one  cent  per  ounce.  To  accompany  the 
specimens,  write  a letter  containing  all  particulars  concerning  the 
insects,  such  as  the  date  of  its  appearance,  numbers,  the  part  of 
the  plant  attacked,  whether  root,  stem,  leaf,  flower  or  bud,  the 
remedies,  if  any,  which  you  have  tried  ; and,  indeed,  any  notes 
whatsoever  concerning  the  insect.  These  may  be  of  great  practi- 
cal as  well  as  of  scientific  value.  All  packages  should  have  the 
name  of  the  sender  plainly  written  on  the  outside,  and  should  be 
addressed  to  the  Entomologist,  Agricultural  Experiment  Station, 
Pullman,  Washington. 


acknowledgments. 


We  are  under  obligations  for  the  use  of  electrotypes  to  Prof.  Lawrence 
Bruner,  of  the  Nebraska  Station  ; to  Prof.  C.  P.  Gillette,  of  the  Colorado 
Station ; to  Mr.  M.  V.  Slingerland,  of  the  Cornell  Station  ; to  Messrs.  Lip- 
pin  cott  & Co.,  Philadelphia  ; to  Secretary  of  Agriculture  Morton  ; to  Prof. 
Clarence  M.  Weed;  and  to  Secretary  C.  A.  Tonneson,  of  the  State  Board 
of  Agriculture. 

The  original  sources  of  the  cuts  is  as  follows  : 

After  Riley  : Figures  i,  2,  7,  n,  12,  13,  22,  23,  24,  30,  33,  40,  51,  52,  50, 

53,  48. 

After  Saunders  : Figures,  3,  4,  5,  8,  9,  10,  14,  15,  25,  29,  27,  31,  32,  39,  40. 

After  Harris  : Figures  28,  29. 

After  Slingerland  : Figures  16,  19,  20,  21. 

After  “ Insect  Life  ” : Figures  34,  35,  36,  37,  38. 

After  Weed:  120,  121,  107,  108. 


INSECT  PESTS  OF  THE  GARDEN,  FARM  AND  ORCHARD 


By  C.  V.  Piper. 


SOME  FACTS  ABOUT  INSECTS. 


That  the  orchardist,  or  farmer  may  intelligently  combat  insect 
pests,  some  knowledge  of  the  wonderful  transformations  of  in- 
sects in  general  is  necessary,  as  well  as  the  particular  life  history 
of  each  separate  pest  ; and  with  this  a thorough  understanding 
of  the  few  technical  terms  whose  use  is  unavoidable. 

Insects  may  easily  be  distinguished  from  all  related  animals  by 
the  mere  fact  that  they  possess  three  pairs  of  legs ; spiders  and 
most  mites  have  four  pairs  of  legs,  and  are  not  insects. 

The  great  majority  of  insects  pass  through  four  more  or  less 
distinct  stages  of  existence  ; first , the  egg ; second , the  larva , var- 
iously known  as  caterpillar,  grub,  maggot,  borer,  and  commonly 
but  not  properly  as  “worm.”  True  worms,  such  as  the  earth- 
worm and  leech,  never  change  into  insects  ; third , the  pupa , in 
most  insects  quiescent,  and  either  naked  or  covered  with  a cocooyi; 
the  pupa  of  a butterfly  is  sometimes  called  a chrysalis;  in  many 
other  insects,  such  as  the  grasshopper  and  plant  bugs,  the  pupa 
remains  active,  and  differs  from  the  larva  only  in  possessing  rudi- 
mentary wings  ; such  active  pupae  are  called  nymphs;  fourth , the 
perfect  insect  or  imago , whether  fly,  bug,  beetle,  ant,  butterfly,  or 


6 


Washing-ton  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


bee.  Nearly  all  insects  pass  through  the  four  stages  described. 
When  as  in  the  case  of  the  butterfly  and  bee,  the  pupa  is  quies- 
cent, the  transformations  form  a complete  metamorphosis ; when 
the  pupa  is  active  as  in  bugs  and  locusts,  the  metamorphosis  is 
incomplete. 

Some  few  insects  do  not  pass  through  a metamorphosis  at  all, 
but  the  young,  hatched  from  the  egg,  or  in  some  cases  born  alive, 
closely  resemble  the  parent  ; in  the  plant  lice  or  aphididcz,  the 
life  history  is  peculiar,  and  is  treated  of  in  detail  in  the  consider- 
ation of  these  insects. 

Many  insets  are  destructive  only  in  the  larval  stage  (caterpil- 
lars, grubs,  maggots,  borers),  and  all  insects  with  a complete 
metamorphosis  grow  only  in  this  stage.  The  pupae  of  insects 
with  a complete  metamorphosis  never  feed,  but  when  they  remain 
active  (nymphs)  as  in  the  bugs  and  grasshoppers,  they  continue 
to  feed  and  grow,  and  are  quite  as  destructive  as  the  larvae. 

The  adult  insects  or  imagoes , are  also  frequently  injurious 
(beetles,  grasshoppers,  bugs).  In  most  cases  an  insect  is  injur- 
ious only  in  one  of  its  stages,  usually  the  larval  ; in  others  both 
the  larvae  and  adults  do  the  damage,  and  in  a few  (grasshoppers, 
bugs),  larvae,  pupae  and  adults  are  all  destructive. 

It  must  be  understood  that  the  term  injurious  insect  is  a purely 
relative  one.  Commonly  by  injurious  insect  we  mean  those  that 
damage  plants,  animals,  or  stored  products  useful  to  man  ; if  on 
the  other  hand  they  tend  to  destroy  weeds  or  noxious  animals, 
they  are  indirectly  beneficial.  Usually,  however,  the  term  “ bene- 
ficial insects  ” is  applied  to  those  that  destroy  noxious  insects ; 
on  the  other  hand,  any  enemy  to  the  beneficial  insect,  becomes 
indirectly  injurious.  To  illustrate,  the  ladybird  beetles  are 
beneficial  because  they  destroy  myriads  of  injurious  plant 
lice ; several  parasitic  insects,  however,  destroy  the  ladybird  and 
thus  become  indirectly  injurious.  However,  this  last  matter  is 
largely  beyond  our  control. 

BENEFICIAL  INSECTS. 

Of  these  there  are,  according  to  their  habits,  two  distinct 
classes,  the  predaceous , which  capture  and  eat  their  prey,  and  the 
pa7rasitic,  which  deposit  their  eggs  in  or  on  the  bodies  of  their 


Bulletin  ly — Insect  Pests  of  the  Garden , Farm  and  Orchard  7 


victims  (called  technically  the  host  of  the  parasite)  ; these  eggs 
hatch  into  larvae  which  feed  on  the  body  juices  of  the  host,  fin- 
ally killing  it.  Most  parasites  deposite  their  eggs  in  or  on  the 
larval  stage  of  their  host,  which  gradually  succumbs  to  the  at- 
tack of  the  parasite,  usually,  however,  retaining  strength  enough 
to  change  into  a pupa  before  dying.  Inside  the  body  of  the  vic- 
tim, the  parasite  passes  through  the  larva  and  pupa  stages,  finally 
emerging  as  a perfect  insect.  Other  parasites  lay  their  eggs  in 
the  pupae  or  even  in  the  imagoes  of  their  hosts  ; and  many  minute 
forms,  called  egg-parasites , lay  their  eggs  in  the  eggs  of  other 
insects. 

Among  the  most  useful  of  the  predaceous  insects  are  the  lady- 
birds ( Fig  1).  Both  in  the  adult  and  laval  stages,  ladybirds  de- 
stroy great  numbers  of  plant  lice,  young  scale  insects,  and  other 
soft  bodied  forms. 


figure  i. — Convergent 
Lady  Bird.  Larvae, 
pupa,  wings. 


figure  3. — Ground  FIG-  4 Tachma. 

Beetle,  ( Harpalus 
caliginosus). 


Hardly  less  efficacious  than  the  ladybirds  in  destroying  plant- 
lice  is  Chrysopa , the  golden-eye  or  lace-wing  fly,  (Fig.  2),  a 
beautiful  pale-green  insect.  Only  in  its  larval  stage  is  it  pre- 
daceous, the  larva  being  provided  with  large  sharp  jaws. 

The  common  black  ground  bettles  are  also  very  useful  insects, 
destroying  large  numbers  of  grubs  and  other  soft  bodied  insects. 
A very  familiar  species  is  shown  in  Fig.  3. 

Among  the  parasitic  insects  which  do  much  to  lessen  the  loss 
to  farmers,  are  the  Tachina  flies  ( Fig.  4).  These  resemble  quite 
closely  in  form  the  common  house  fly.  They  are  all  parasites, 
mostly  in  the  bodies  of  caterpillars. 


8 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


The  immense  family  of  Ichneumon  flies  are  also  all  parasites. 
Two  common  species,  shown  in  Figs.  5 and  6,  do  much  to  keep 
down  the  numbers  of  various  caterpillars.  Other  minute  species 
lay  their  eggs  in  the  bodies  of  plant  lice  and  other  small  insects, 
thus  destroying  hosts  of  them.  It  is  a matter  of  common  obser- 
vation that  years  of  abundance  of  an  insect  is  apt  to  be  balanced 
by  one  or  more  years  of  scarcity.  This  is  mainly  owing  to  the 
work  of  parasites. 

The  closely  related  minute  chalcid,  flies  also  destroy  great  num- 
bers of  insects. 


figure  2. — I,ace  Wing  Fly.  a , eggs  ; b,  larva  ; c,  mature  insect. 


DISEASES. 


Several  diseases  caused  by  low  fungus  plants  also  destroy  many 
insects,  especially  in  wet  seasons.  Some  of  these  diseases  have 
been  used  with  considerable  success  in  combatting  pests. 

INSECTICIDES  OR  INSECT  KITTING  SUBSTANCES. 

While  beneficial  insects  and  diseases  do  much  to  keep  down 
the  numbers  of  pests,  yet  these  latter  very  often  increase  to  such 
an  extent  that  they  must  be  vigorously  combatted  with  insecti- 
cides. 

There  are  two  principal  classes  of  insecticides,  namely,  those 
that  kill  by  being  swallowed  with  the  food,  internal  poisons , and 
those  that  kill  through  contact,  either  by  their  irritating  proper- 
ties, or  by  closing  the  breathing  pores  of  the  insect,  or  by  both 
effects,  external  poisons. 


Bulletin  ij — bisect  Pests  of  the  Garden , Farm  and  Orchard  9 


Insecticides  of  the  first  class  are  to  be  used  only  for  biting  in- 
sects, those  that  bite  and  chew  their  food  ; those  of  the  second  class 
mainly  for  sucking  insects , those  that  take  their  food  in  a liquid 
form  only.  In  some  cases,  external  insecticides  can  be  used  to 
good  advantage  against  biting  insects. 

Sucking  insects  obtain  their  food  from  the  juices  of  the  plant 
by  inserting  their  sharp  beaks  into  the  tissues  of  the  plant.  It  is 
manifestly  useless,  therefore,  to  spray  plants  with  an  internal  in- 


(Fitnpla  conquisitor). 


fig.  6. — Ichneumon  Fly.  ( Ophion  bil- 
ineatus ). 


secticide  for  such  insects,  as  the  insect’s  food,  the  sap  or  other 
juices  of  the  plant,  is  not  reached  at  all  by  the  poison. 

So  likewise  it  is  useless  to  spray  with  an  external  poison  for 
such  bitting  insects  as  the  borers,  simply  because  the  poison  does 
not  reach  the  part  of  the  plant  on  which  they  are  feeding. 


INTERNAL,  OR  FOOD  POISONS  ,*  THE  ARSENICALS. 

Two  poisons,  namely,  Paris  Green  and  London  Purple,  have 
displaced  all  other  substances  as  the  ordinary  insecticides  for  bit- 
ing insects.  They  are  both  heavy  powders,  the  former  bright 
green  in  color,  the  latter  dull  purple.  In  each  case  the  active 
poison  is  arsenic , of  which  they  both  contain  about  sixty  per  cent. 
The  amount  is  less  apt  to  vary  in  Paris  Green  than  in  London 
Purple.  The  former  is  the  stronger  insecticide  and  acts  more 
quickly  ; the  latter  remains  better  supended  in  water,  and  is 
cheaper.  Paris  Green  costs  about  20  cents  a pound  in  quantities  ; 
London  Purple  about  half  that  amount.  White  arsenic,  which  is 
sometimes  recommended,  should  nevei  be  used/  It  is  not  only 


IO 


Washington  Agricultural  Experime?it  Station 


dangerous  to  have  around,  but  burns  foliage  very  readily  when 
used. 

HOW  TO  USE  THE  ARSENICAES. 

The  Wet  Method . — In  this,  the  standard  method,  the  poison  is 
applied  in  a spray,  using  one  pound  of  the  poison  to  150  gallons 
of  water  for  all  plants  except  the  plum  and  the  peach  ; for  these 
two  the  strength  should  not  exceed  one  pound  of  the  poison  to 
to  250  gallons  of  water,  otherwise  the  foliage  will  be  scalded. 

To  prepare  the  spray,  the  poison  should  first  be  mixed  into  a 
fine  paste  with  a small  amount  of  water,  and  an  equal  amount  of 
good  lime  added.  The  mixture  may  then  be  washed  through  a 
strainer  into  the  spray  tank  and  the  proper  amount  of  water 
added.  With  London  Purple  the  lime  must  always  be  used;  it  is 
desirable  but  not  necessary  with  the  Paris  Green  also. 

The  Dry  Method . — This  consists  in  dusting  the  poison  on  the 
plants  in  a dry  form,  diluting  it  first  by  thoroughly  mixing  with 
flour,  air-slaked  lime  or  dust.  It  is  to  be  applied  to  the  plants, 
preferably  in  the  early  morning,  when  wet  with  dew,  by  sifting 
through  a piece  of  course  cheese  cloth,  or  with  a powder  gun.  A 
convenient  form  of  sifter  is  a joint  of  stove-pipe,  with  the  cheese 
cloth  tied  over  one  end. 

We  recommend  this  method  for  cabbage  insects,  for  which  one 
pound  of  the  poison  is  to  be  mixed  with  fifty  pounds  of  flour  or 
dust,  or  a like  proportion  in  smaller  amounts.  The  last  applica- 
tion should  not  be  made  later  than  ten  days  before  the  cabbage  is 
to  be  used,  and  in  this  application  use  in  the  proportion  of  one 
pound  of  poison  to  100  pounds  of  flour.  In  applying  use  just 
enough  so  that  it  is  plainly  visible  on  the  whole  plant. 

For  young  plants  of  various  kinds,  attacked  by  flea  beetles,  use 
one  pound  of  the  poison  to  fifty  pounds  of  flour,  and  use  freely. 

CONTACT  OR  EXTERNAL  INSECTICIDES. 

Kerosene  Emulsion  is  still  the  leading  insectitude  of  this  class. 

KEROSENE  EMULSION — THE  STANDARD  FORMULA. 


Kerosene  2 gallons 

Whale  oil  soap  (or  1 qt.  soft  soap) Yz  pound 

Water  1 gallon 


Bulletin  iy — Insect  Pests  of  the  Garden , Farm  arid  Orchard  1 1 


The  soap  is  to  be  dissolved  by  boiling  in  the  water,  which  is 
then  added,  boiling  hot,  away  from  the fire , to  the  kerosene.  The 
whole  mixture  is  then  violently  agitated  by  being  pumped  back 
on  itself  with  a force  pump  through  an  ordinary  one-eighth-inch 
nozzle.  Most  forms  of  spray  pumps  answer  this  purpose  admir- 
ably. After  four  or  five  minutes  pumping,  the  mixture  will  have 
a thick  creamy  consistence,  and  if  well  made  will  stand  indefi- 
nitely without  free  oil  rising  to  the  top. 

Hard  soap  may  be  used  instead  of  the  whale  oil,  but  it  is 
desirable  to  use  a good  quality,  such  as  Ivory  soap.  The  best 
results,  however,  are  obtained  from  using  whale  oil  soap. 

Unless  otherwise  stated , the  kerosene  emulsion  is  to  be  used  dis- 
solved in  water,  in  the  proportion  of  one  gallon  of  the  emulsion 
to  12  gallons  of  water. 

KEROSENE  AND  MIEK  EMULSION. 

When  only  a small  amount  of  kerosene  emulsion  is  needed  it 
may  be  quickly  be  made  as  follows  : 

Kerosene 2 quarts 

Sour  milk 1 quart 

Mix  the  two  without  heating  and  churn  thoroughly  as  in  ordin- 
ary kerosene  emulsion.  The  mixture  emulsifies  into  a very  thick 
cream  after  four  or  five  minutes  agitation.  Dilute  with  twelve 
parts  water  before  using. 


SULPHUR,  salt  AND  LIME  WASH. 


Lime  

Sulphur 

Salt 

Water  to  make 


50  pounds 
25  pounds 
, 18  pounds 
100  gallons 


Take  15  pounds  of  lime  and  25  pounds  of  sulphur,  and  boil 
with  20  gallons  of  water  for  about  two  hours,  when  the  sulphur 
should  be  dissolved  and  the  liquid  of  a deep  amber  color.  While 
boiling,  the  liquid  should  be  frequently  stirred. 

vSlack  the  rest  of  the  lime  in  another  cask,  using  preferably  hot 
water,  and  while  it  is  boiling  add  the  salt,  and  stir  until  it  is  dis- 
solved. Then  add  this  to  the  lime  and  sulphur  solution  in  the 
boiler,  and  boil  for  another  half  hour,  after  which  water  sufficient 
to  make  the  100  gallons  is  to  be  gradually  added,  stirring  mean- 
while. 


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Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


In  spraying,  use  a pump  with  an  agitator  so  that  the  solution 
is  kept  constantly  stirred.  This  wash  is  to  be  used  only  when  the 
leaves  are  off  the  trees. 

RKSIN  SOLUTION. 


Summer  Formula. 

Resin 20  pounds 

Crude  Caustic  Soda.  . . 5 pounds 

Fish  oil 2 )/2  pints 

Water  to  make 100  gallons 


Winter  Formula. 


Resin  30  pounds 

Crude  Caustic  Soda 8 pounds 

Fish  oil 4 pints 

Water  to  make 100  gallons 


Place  the  resin,  soda  and  oil  in  a kettle,  cover  with  three  or 
four  inches  of  water  and  boil  two  hours  or  more,  when  the  sub- 
stance will  be  dissolved,  and  the  mixture  resembles  black 
molasses.  Add  the  rest  of  the  water,  preferably  warm , gradually 
to  the  mixture,  stirring  meanwhile. 

The  summer  formula  is  useful  for  plant  lice,  young  scale  in- 
sects, etc. 

The  winter  formula  gives  excellent  results,  where  not  wet  too 
often  by  rains,  as  a winter  spray  for  scale  insects. 


whale-oil  soap. 

Simple  solutions  of  this  substance  of  varying  strength,  are  fatal 
to  many  insects.  Mr.  L,.  O.  Howard  found  that  a solution  of  two 
pounds  to  one  gallon  of  water  was  fatal  when  applied  as  a winter 
wash  to  the  San  Jose  scale,  one  of  the  most  difficult  insects  to  kill. 

pyrethrum  or  buhach. 

This  is  a fine  yellow  powder,  having  a pungent  odor,  made 
from  the  flowers  of  a chrysanthemum-like  plant.  While  deadly 
to  most  insects  it  is  perfectly  harmless  to  man.  It  is  much  better 
fresh,  as  in  time  it  loses  the  volatile  oil  on  which  its  insecticide 
qualities  depend.  For  this  reason  Buhach,  a brand  made  by  the 
Buhach  Manufacturing  Co.,  Stockton,  Cal.,  is  to  be  preferred.  It 
may  be  used  by  dusting  over  the  plants,  first  diluting  with  four 
times  its  bulk  of  flour.  In  this  case  the  mixture  should  be  kept 
in  a tight  jar  a day  or  two  when  the  entire  mass  will  be  nearly 
as  good  as  the  pure  powder.  Or  it  may  be  applied  as  a liquid  spray, 
using  one  ounce  Buhach  to  three  gallons  of  water.  Buhach  costs 
about  60  cents  a pound,  which  prevents  its  more  extensive  use. 
It  is  used  mainly  for  cabbage  insects,  or  wherever  there  may  be 
danger  from  using  a poisonous  insecticide. 


Bulletin  ij — Insect  Pests  of  the  Garden , Faim  and  Orchard  13 


HELLEBORE. 

This  substance  comes  in  the  form  of  a finely  ground  white 
powder,  selling  for  about  60  cents  a pound  in  quantities.  It  is 
similar  in  its  action  to  Buhach,  and  is  especially  useful  against 
the  cherry  slug.  Use  dry  diluted  with  four  or  five  times  its  bulk 
of  flour  ; or  as  a watery  solution,  using  one  ounce  of  the  Hellebore 
to  four  or  five  gallons  of  water. 

CARBON  BISULPHIDE. 

This  is  a heavy,  ill-smelling  liquid,  the  vapor  of  which  is 
quickly  fatal  to  all  life.  It  is  very  explosive , and  must  be  kept 
away  from  the  fire  or  from  any  other  flame  or  spark. 

It  has  been  used  with  much  success  for  such  subterranean  in- 
sects as  borers,  cabbage  maggots  and  the  root  form  of  the  woolly 
aphis. 

To  use  it  for  such  insects,  punch  small  holes  in  the  ground  a 
foot  or  so  deep  near  the  roots  of  the  affected  plants,  and  pour  a 
small  quantity  of  the  liquid  in  each,  afterwards  covering  the 
holes  with  earth.  The  vapor  penetrates  through  the  soil  and  kills 
the  insects.  Large  quantities  of  it  must  not  be  used,  as  it  also 
destroys  plant  life. 

COMBINED  INSECTICIDE  AND  FUNGICIDE. 

It  is  sometimes  desirable  to  spray  for  both  insects  and  fungus 
diseases  at  the  same  time.  This  can  be  done  in  the  case  of  biting 
insects,  by  adding  one  pound  of  Paris  Green  or  London  Purple  to 
200  gallons  of  the  fungicide  known  as  Bordeaux  Mixture. 

Bordeaux  Mixture  is  best  made  by  the  following  formula  : 


Copper  Sulphate  (Bluestone) 6 pounds 

Fresh  Lime  4 pounds 

Water 50  gallons 


First  dissolve  the  bluestone  in  30  gallons  of  water.  This  is  more 
easily  done  if  the  bluestone  is  supended  in  the  water  in  a piece  of 
coarse  cloth  or  sacking.  Slack  the  lime  carefully  in  a small 
quantity  of  water,  slowly  adding  enough  of  the  latter  to  make  a 
creamy  liquid.  Then  pour  this  slowly  into  the  bluestone  solution, 
with  enough  water  to  make  the  50  gallons,  stirring  continually. 

If  properly  made  the  mixture  will  have  a deep  sky-blue  color. 

A very  convenient  test  for  Bordeaux  mixture  is  made  with  a 


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Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Statio?i 


weak,  watery  solution  of  yellow  prussiate  of  potash,  made  by  dis- 
solving one  ounce  of  the  latter  in  a pint  of  water.  If  the  Bordeaux 
mixture  is  properly  made  there  will  be  no  change  when  a drop  or 
two  of  the  potash  solution  is  added  to  it ; if  however  there  is  not 
enough  lime,  a brownish  color  appears  whenever  the  potash  sol- 
ution drops  in  the  Bordeaux  mixture.  When  this  is  the  case 
more  lime  should  be  added  until  no  brown  color  appears  upon  re- 
peating the  test. 

Bordeaux  Mixture  must  be  used  fresh. 


HOST  INDEX  OF  INSECTS  DESCRIBED  HEREIN. 

Attacking  the  Apple  Nos.  i,  2,  4,  5,  6,  8,  11,  12,  13,  14,  16,  17,  18,  21,  22,  28 

Attacking  the  Pear Nos  5,  io,  14,  17 

Attacking  the  Plum  Nos.  2,  4,  5,  11,  12,  13,  14,  16,  17 

Attacking  the  Peach  Nos.  13,  14 

Attacking  the  Cherry Nos.  3,  9,  13,  14,  17,  23 

Attacking  the  Currant.  Nos.  4,  14,  15,  17,  19 

Attacking  the  Strawberry No.  34 

Attacking  the  Raspberry . . Nos.  2,  14 

Attacking  the  Blackberry  No.  14 

Attacking  the  Grape Nos.  14,  17 

Attacking  the  Cabbage Nos.  12,  25,  29,  30,  31,  32,  33,  34 

Attacking  the  Tomato  No.  12 

Attacking  the  Rose Nos.  2,  4,  5,  14,  16,  17,  19,  28 

Attacking  various  shade  and  ornamental  trees 

Nos.  4,  5,  6,  11,  12,  14,  17,  20,  26,  27 


NO.  I — THE  CODDING  MOTH  ( Carpocapsa  pomonella'). 

Diagnosis. — Infesting  the  fruit  of  the  apple  and  pear  ; a small 
pinkish  larva  which  burrows  into  the  fruit  and  discloses  its  pres- 
ence by  brownish  castings  which  it  ejects  from  a hole  in  the  fruit  ; 
many  of  the  attacked  apples  fall  prematurely  to  the  ground. 

Descriptioyi  and  Life  History. — The  larva  is  the  young  of  a 
small  purplish-brown  moth  shown  in  Fig.  7.  It  measures  a little 
more  than  half  an  inch  from  tip  to  tip.  The  first  moths  appear 
at  the  time  the  apple  trees  are  in  bloom,  or  a little  later,  when  the 
females  deposit  their  eggs  singly  in  each  blossom,  or  on  the  blos- 
som end  of  the  young  apple.  Each  female  is  capable  of  laying 
forty  or  fifty  eggs.  In  from  six  to  nine  days  these  eggs  hatch 
into  minute  larvae  or  “ worms”  which  at  once  begin  to  burrow  to 


Bulletin  iy — bisect  Pests  of  the  Garden , Farm  and  Orchard  15 


the  core  of  the  apple.  Arriving  there  when  half  grown,  the 
“worm”  feeds  mainly  on  the  young  seeds,  toward  which  it  is 
very  partial.  The  castings  are  thrown  out  through  the  same  hole 
by  which  the  worm  entered,  or  more  frequently  through  a hori- 
zontal hole  bored  to  the  side.  These  castings  are  of  a rusty  red- 
dish color,  and  make  the  wormy  apples  quite  easy  to  detect  at 
this  time.  In  about  four  weeks’  time  the  ‘ ‘ worm  ’ ’ or  larva 
reaches  its  full  size  and  then  leaves  the  apple  either  by  crawling 
out  of  the  hole  and  thence  on  to  the  tree,  or  by  dropping  to  the 
ground  on  a silken  thread  which  it  spins  ; many  of  the  infested 
apples  drop  to  the  ground,  and  not  rarely  this  happens  before  the 
larva  has  attained  its  full  growth.  In  such  case,  the  worms 
crawl  out  of  the  apple  almost  immediately,  and  most  of  them 
reach  the  trunks  of  the  trees,  up  which  they  crawl. 

The  larvae  seek  for  protected 
places,  such  as  crevices  in  the 
bark,  and  there  spin  a thin 
cocoon  in  which  they  soon 
change  to  brownish  pupae.  In 
from  fourteen  to  eighteen  days, 
the  adult  moths  of  the  second 
brood  emerge,  and  a few  days 
later  eggs  are  laid  from  which 
a third  brood  develops.  Usu- 
ally the  larvae  of  the  third 
brood  become  mature  late  in 
fall,  and  strangely  enough  spin 
a cocoon  in  which  they  hiber- 
nate in  the  larval  condition, 
not  changing  to  pupae  until 
the  following  spring 
never  attracted  to  lights. 

Remedies.  — 1.  The  arsenicals  furnish  by  far  the  best  remedy 
for  this  insect.  The  trees  should  be  sprayed  first  within  a few 
days  after  the  petals  fall  from  the  blossoms,  never  before.  A sec- 
ond spraying  should  be  given  two  weeks  later.  The  object  is  to 
keep  the  growing  apples  covered  with  the  poison,  so  that  the 
young  worm  becomes  poisoned  the  moment  it  begins  to  burrow 


Fig.  7 — Codlin  Moth  : a,  burrowings  of  larva  ; 
e,  larva  \f  moth,  wings  closed;  g , moth,  wings 
expanded  ; h , head  of  larva  ; i,  cocoon. 

The  moths  fly  mainly  at  night,  and  are 


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Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


into  the  apple.  As  a rule  two  applications  are  sufficient,  but  if 
necessary  a third  may  be  given  two  weeks  after  the  second. 

2.  Advantage  is  taken  of  the  habit  of  the  larvae  of  pupating 
in  sheltered  places  on  the  trunk,  by  preparing  suitable  places  to 
which  they  are  attracted  to  pupate,  and  in  which  they  may  easily  be 
destroyed.  The  simplest  method  is  the  so-called  “ band  system.” 
This  consists  simply  of  fastening  a strip  of  burlap  around  the 
trunk  a foot  or  so  above  the  ground.  The  burlap  should  reach 
twice  around  the  trunk  and  may  be  fastened  with  a nail.  If  the 
trunk  of  the  tree  is  kept  clean  and  free  from  loose  bark,  nearly  all 
the  larvae  which  escape  the  spraying,  will  pupate  beneath  the  bur- 
lap band  and  may  there  easily  be  killed.  The  bands  should  be 
examined  every  two  weeks.  If  a longer  time  elapses,  some  of 
the  moths  will  have  emerged  from  the  pupae  and  have  escaped. 
Especial  care  should  be  taken  to  examine  the  bands  after  the 
leaves  have  fallen  in  autumn  and  before  the  buds  burst  in  spring, 
so  that  all  the  hibernating  individuals  may  be  destroyed  The 
danger  from  the  first  brood  is  thus  largely  lessened. 

The  use  of  these  two  methods  together,  furnishes  the  best 
known  remedy  for  this  insect. 

Washington  Notes. — Very  destructive  throughout  the  state. 
Some  growers  make  a practice  of  spraying  every  two  weeks 
throughout  the  season.  While  this  furnishes  almost  complete 
immunity  from  the  attacks  of  this  insect,  it  is  seriously  to  be 
doubted  if  the  applications  after  the  third  or  fourth  will  save 
enough  more  apples  to  pay  for  the  cost  of  the  additional  spray- 
ings. 

NO.  2 — THE  OBEIQUE-BANDED  EEAF-ROEEER. 

( Cacoecia  rosaceana ). 

Diagnosis . — Infesting  the  apple,  pear,  plum,  cherry,  raspberry, 
currant,  and  other  shrubs  ; leaves  rolled  up  into  tubes  and  tied 
by  silken  threads,  in  which  the  small  green  larvae  feed  and  are 
sheltered. 

Descriptioyi  and  Life  History. — The  mature  insect  is  a small 
moth,  spreading  about  one  inch.  When  the  wings  are  closed  the 
moth  resembles  a tall  helmet  in  outline  (Fig.  8);  when  open,  the 
the  front  of  the  fore-wings  is  seen  to  be  doubly  curved  (Fig.  9). 
The  fore- wings  are  dull,  reddish  brown  in  color,  crossed  by  three 


Bullethi  iy — Insect  Pests  of  the  Garden , Farm  and  Orchard  17 


oblique  darker  bands  ; the  hind  wings  are  dirty  yellow.  Soon 
after  the  leaves  unfold  in  spring,  the  larvae  (Fig.  10)  hatch  out, 
and  at  once  roll  up  leaves  in  which  they  live  and  feed.  When 
disturbed  they  have  the  habit  of  wriggling  out  quickly  and  drop- 
ping to  the  ground  by  a fine  thread.  They  become  fully  grown 
in  June,  and  are  then  about  three-fourths  of  an  inch  long,  pale 
green  in  color,  with  a darker  stripe  along  the  back.  In  the  leaf- 
tube  the  larvae  now  transform  into  brownish  pupae.  Before  these 
hatch  they  wriggle  partly  out  of  the  open  end  of  the  nest,  so 
that  after  the  moth  has  emerged,  the  brownish  pupa  skins  are 
quite  conspicuous.  There  is  but  one  brood  a year. 

Remedies. — Spray  with  Paris  Green  or  London  Purple,  shortly 
after  the  leaves  unfold. 

Washington  Notes. — Common  throughout  the  state  and  some- 
times very  abundant,  especially  on  plums  and  prunes.  In  some 
seasons  it  is  one  of  our  most  injurious  insects. 


Fig  10. — Oblique-banded  Leaf- 
roller.  Upper  figure,  larva  ; 
lower  figure,  pupa. 

( Cacoecia  cerasivorana) . 


Fig.  8.— Oblique- 
banded  Leaf- 
roller;  moth, 
wings  closed. 


Fig.  9— Oblique-banded 
Leaf-roller ; moth, 
wings  spread. 


NO.  3. — THE  CHERRY  EEAE-ROREER. 


Diagnosis. — Small  greenish  caterpillars  on  the  choke-cherry, 
and  less  frequently  on  the  cultivated  cherry,  tying  the  leaves  of 
the  terminal  twigs  into  great  nests  by  means  of  numerous  silken 
threads. 

Description  and  Life  History. — The  adult  is  very  similar  to  the 
preceding  insect.  The  fore  wings  are  bright  shining  yellow  more 
or  less  marked  with  brown  splotches  ; the  hind  wings  are  a paler 
yellow.  The  eggs  are  laid  in  large  numbers  in  circular  masses, 
and  are  covered  over  with  a brownish  glutinous  substance.  They 
hatch  shortly  after  the  leaves  appear  in  spring  into  minute  green 
larvae,  which  at  once  proceed  to  tie  up  the  leaves  into  large 


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Washington  Agricultural  Expeiiment  Station 


nests,  in  which  they  remain.  As  the  larvae  grow  older  they 
continually  enlarge  the  size  of  the  nest  by  tying  new  leaves  and 
twigs  to  it.  The  fully  grown  larvae  measure  three-fourths  of  an 
inch  in  length,  are  dirty  greenish  in  color  excepting  the  head, 
first  segment,  and  legs,  which  are  black.  The  body  is  marked 
only  by  four  rows  of  minute  black  tubercles,  each  of  which  bears 
a short  hair.  All  the  excreta  are  deposited  in  a mass  in  the  nest, 
and  when  the  larvae  are  fully  grown,  which  is  usually  late  in 
June,  they  burrow  into  the  mass  and  there  transform  into  pupae, 
emerging  two  weeks  later  as  moths.  There  is  but  a single  brood 


fig.  11— Tent  Caterpellar.  a-b,  larvse  ; c,  eggs  ; 
d,  cocoon. 


Remedies. — As  the  caterpillars  congregate  in  their  nests,  it  is 
only  necessary  to  remove  these  and  burn  them. 

Washington  Notes. — Very  common  in  the  eastern  part  of  the 
state,  but  doing  very  little  injury  except  to  choke-cherries.  Not- 
withstanding the  protection  of  their  nests,  many  of  the  caterpillars 
are  destroyed  by  the  ichneumon  parasite,  Macrocentrus  nuperusy 
Cr.,  of  which  we  have  reared  large  numbers. 


Bulletin  iy — Insect  Pests  of  the  Garden , Farm  and  Orchard  19 


no.  4. — TENT  caterpillars.  ( Clisiocampa  erosa ) and  ( Clisio - 
campa  pluvialis') . 

Diagnosis. — In  spring  and  early  summer  large  numbers  of 
elongate  yellowish  caterpillars,  usually  congregated  in  silken 
nests  or  ‘ ‘ tents  ’ ’ on  various  trees  and  shrubs. 

Clisiocampa  erosa  feeds  on  the  foliage  of  the  apple,  willow,  pop- 
lar, prune,  cherry,  and  alder  ; C.  pluvialis  feeds  on  that  of  alder 
in  Western  Washington  and  on  wild  rose  and  choke-cherry  in 
Eastern  Washington.  It  is  also  recorded  by  Dyar  as  feeding  on 
apple. 

Description  and  Life  History. — The  caterpillars  of  the  two 
species  are  very  similar.  They  may  be  distinguished  from  the 
following  descriptions  : 

C.  erosa. — Body  black,  with  a row  of  round  whitish  or  pale 


fig.  12— Tent  Caterpillar.  Adult 

moth. 


orange  spots  along  the  center  line  of  the  back  ; a broad  blue  band 
on  each  side  of  the  body  bordered  along  each  side  with  narrow 
black  lines  ; between  the  blue  band  and  the  dorsal  row  of  spots 
an  orange-red  line  ; below  the  blue  band  an  orange  line.  Below 
this  and  on  the  under  side  of  the  body,  the  general  color  is  a dark 
bluish-gray.  Hair  thin  and  short,  pale  yellowish,  with  some 
reddish  ones  intermixed. 

C.  pluvialis. — Dorsal  row  composed  of  nine  narrowly  oval  blue 
spots,  each  bordered  with  black  ; on  each  side  of  the  dorsal  line 
is  a broad  band  of  orange ; on  the  middle  of  each  side  is  a rather 
narrow  line  of  pale  orange,  here  and  there  broken  by  narrow  cross 
lines  of  black  ; between  this  and  the  broad  band  of  orange  is  a 
heavy  black  band  containing  two  small  blue  dots  to  each  seg- 
ment. Below  the  body  is  black  with  irregular  mottlings  of  white 
and  yellow.  Hair  thin,  reddish. 

When  fully  grown,  which  is  usually  the  middle  of  June,  the 
caterpillars  construct  white,  silken  cocoons,  in  which  they  change 


20 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


to  pupae.  Two  weeks  later  the  moths  emerge  therefrom.  The 
adult  female  is  a pale,  yellowish  moth,  spreading  one  and  one-half 
inches.  Across  the  front  wings  extend  two  wavy  oblique  lines  of 
brownish  color.  A single  line  crosses  the  somewhat  darker  un- 
der-wings. 

The  male  is  much  smaller,  spreading  only  an  inch,  and  much 
darker  in  color.  Figures n and  12,  represent  a closely  related 
Faster n species. 

Shortly  after  the  moths  emerge,  the  eggs  are  laid  in  large 
masses  and  covered  with  a foamy  looking,  gelatinous  substance, 
which  soon  hardens.  This  serves  as  a protection  to  the  eggs  and 
also  forms  the  first  food  of  the  young  larvae.  In  confinement 
pluvialis  lays  eggs  two  days  after  emerging  from  the  pupae.  The 
eggs  do  not  hatch  until  the  following  spring,  so  there  is  but  one 
brood  a year. 

Remedies. — Owing  to  the  gregarious  habits  of  the  caterpillars 
when  young,  they  can  easily  be  destroyed  either  by  cutting  off 
the  branch  with  the  ‘ ‘ tent  ’ ’ and  killing  them  or  by  using  a torch 
and  burning  them,  nest  and  all.  If  the  latter  method  is  used  it 
should  preferably  be  done  in  the  early  morning  or  the  evening  as 
the  caterpillars  are  prone  to  wander  during  the  day. 

Searching  for  and  destroying  the  egg  masses  in  winter  is  also 
a useful  means  of  holding  the  pest  in  check. 

Washington  Notes. — Both  of  these  species  occur  in  Western 
Washington,  but  only  the  latter  in  Eastern  Washington.  C.  erosa 
is  much  the  more  destructive  species,  and  at  times  completely  de- 
foliates orchard  trees.  We  have  reared  large  number  of  a Tachina 
fly  (species  undetermined)  from  C.  pluvialis  and  Washburn  also 
records  rearing  them  from  C.  erosa.  Undoubtedly  great  numbers 
of  the  caterpillars  are  destroyed  by  these  friendly  parasites. 

no.  5—  THE  FAEE  web-worm  (. Hyphantria  cunea ). 

Diagnosis. — Caterpillars  an  inch  long,  yellowish  or  brownish, 
sparsely  covered  with  long  yellowish  or  brownish  hairs  ; building 
large  silken  webs  usually  near  the  tips  of  branches,  in  which 
they,  for  the  most  of  their  lives,  feed ; attacking  apple,  plum, 
pear,  cherry,  willow,  cottonwood,  thorn  and  many  other  trees  in 
the  fall  of  the  year. 


Bulletin  iy — Insect  Pests  of  the  Garden , Farm  and  Orchard  21 


Description  and  Life  History. — These  caterpillars  appear  only 
in  late  summer  and  fall,  and  owing  to  their  web-weaving  habits 
can  be  confused  with  no  other  insects.  When  fully  grown  they 
leave  the  webs  and  scatter  over  the  trees.  Before  pupating,  they 
crawl  into  the  crevices  of  bark  and  similar  situations,  or  beneath 
the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  there  build  a thin  brownish  cocoon 
of  silk  and  of  their  own  hair.  In  this  cocoon  they  transform, 
passing  the  winter  in  the  pupal  condition.  From  these  the  adult 
milk-white  moths,  spreading  a little  over  an  inch,  emerge  in  May 
or  June  of  the  following  year.  According  to  Saunders  the  eggs 
are  deposited  in  broad  patches  on  the  under  sides  of  leaves  near 
the  tips  of  branches  in  May  or  June.  There  is  but  one  brood  a 
year. 


fig.  13 — Fall  Web-Worm,  a,  dark  larva  from  side  ; c,  same  from  above  ; b,  light 
larva  from  above  ; d,  pupa,  under  side  ; e , pupa,  side  view;  f adult,  all  slight- 
ly enlarged. 


Remedies. — The  silken  webs  render  the  presence  of  this  insect 
so  conspicuous  that  is  at  once  detected.  The  webs  should  be  re- 
moved early  and  the  caterpillars  destroyed. 

Washington  Notes. — Common  in  nearly  every  part  of  the  state. 
East  of  the  Cascades  their  native  food  plants  seem  to  be  cotton- 
wood and  thorn  principally. 

no.  6 — red-humped  CATERPIEEAR.  (Oedemasia  concinna) . 

Diagnosis. — Feeding  on  leaves  of  apple,  maple,  horse-chestnut, 
and  several  other  trees.  Longitudinally  striped  caterpillars,  hav- 


22 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


a coral-red  head,  and  a prominent  hump  of  the  same  color  on  the 
back  of  the  fourth  segment. 

Description  and  Life  History . — The  caterpillars  (Fig.  14)  when 
fully  grown  measure  an  inch  and  a half  in  length.  Extending 
the  whole  length  of  the  body  are  numerous  fine  lines.  On  the 
side  they  are  alternately  black,  white  and  yellow.  The  dorsal 
surface  has  five  longitudinal  nearly  black  lines,  and  between  them 
broader  lines  of  yellow.  Extending  the  whole  length  on  the 
back  is  a double  row  of  tubercles,  those  on  the  hump  being 
largest,  each  bearing  a stout  hair.  On  the  sides  are  similar  smal- 
ler tubercles.  The  humped  segment  is  the  largest,  the  body 
tapering  both  ways  therefrom. 

The  caterpillars  feed  in  flocks  and  are  very  voracious,  defoliat- 
a small  tree  in  a few  days.  When  disturbed  they  have  the 
peculiar  habit  of  discharging  a liquid  having  the  odor  of  acetic 
acid. 


fig.  14— Red  Humped  Caterpillar.  fig.  15 — Parent  Moth  of  Red 

Humped  Caterpillar. 


There  is  but  one  brood  a year,  the  caterpillar  appearing  here  at 
the  Experiment  Station  in  August,  becoming  fully  grown  in 
September.  They  then  burrow  just  beneath  the  surface  of  the 
ground  and  construct  a tough  cocoon  in  which  the  larvae  passes 
the  winter,  not  changing  into  pupae  until  the  following  spring. 
The  adult  is  an  inconspicuous  moth,  shown  in  Fig.  1 5. 

It  emerges  from  the  pupa  in  July. 

no.  7. — the  bud  moth  ( Tmetocera  ocellana ). 

Diagnosis . — Infesting  the  apple  ; very  small  pale  brown  cater- 
pillars, feeding  on  the  opening  or  half-opened  buds,  both  of  leaves 
and  flowers  ; frequently  several  buds  may  be  tied  together  by 
silken  threads,  and  in  a short  time  the  partly  eaten  leaves  turn 
brownish,  making  the  work  of  the  pest  very  conspicuous. 

Description  and  Life  History. — The  adult  (Fig.  16)  is  a small 
moth  spreading  about  three-fifths  of  an  inch.  Its  general  color  is 


Bulletin  iy — Insect  Pests  of  the  Garden,  Farm  and  Orchard  23 


dull  ashy  gray ; across  the  middle  of  the  fore  wings  is  a broad 
band  of  whitish  color,  and  near  the  hind  angles  is  a small  eye- 
like spot.  They  appear  in  June  and  early  July,  and  deposit  their 
eggs  singly  on  the  under  sides  of  the  leaves.  In  a short  time 
these  hatch  into  larvae,  which  begin  to  feed  on  the  under  side  of 
the  leaf  near  the  midrib.  A few  hours  after  birth  the  larva  con- 
structs a silken  tube,  open  at  both  ends,  into  which  it  retreats  for 

Shelter  when  disturbed.  This  tube 
is  usually  placed  along  the  midrib, 
and  from  time  to  time  is  length- 
ened by  the  larva,  rarely  attaining 
a length  of  one  inch.  The  larva 
feeds  on  the  pulp  and  lower  epi- 
dermis of  the  leaf  in  a more  or 
less  irregular  area  on  each  side 
of  the  midrib.  The  whole  of  the 
feeding  ground  is  covered  with  a 
very  thin  web,  under  which  the 
larva  works.  In  August  the  larvae 
leave  their  tubes  and  retreat  to  the 
twigs,  constructing  little  cocoons 
in  the  crevices  of  the  bark,  usu- 
ally near  the  buds.  The  cocoons 
are  only  one-eighth  of  an  inch  long 
and  are  very  inconspicuous,  as 
they  are  covered  with  particles  of 
dirt  and  bark,  so  as  to  be  scarcely 
distinguished  from  the  bark. 

With  the  first  days  of  spring 
the  larvae  leave  their  cocoons  and 
begin  their  work  of  destruction  on 
the  buds.  Frequently  they  entirely  destroy  the  buds  by  eating 
out  the  central  portion.  In  some  cases  they  even  burrow  one  or 
more  inches  into  the  pith  of  the  young  twigs.  When  thus  at- 
tacked, the  twigs  die  back  as  far  as  the  burrow. 

Some  of  the  larvae  do  not  leave  their  winter  cocoons  until  the 
buds  are  half  opened.  These  roll  the  leaves  into  tubes  in  which 
they  live  most  of  the  time,  coming  forth  only  to  feed.  In  feeding 
they  draw  the  leaves  together,  tying  them  with  silken  threads, 


fig.  16. — Bud  Moth  : a,  imago,  twice 

natural  size  : b,  wings,  showing  vein- 
ing ; upper  figure,  the  larva,  about 
three  times  natural  size. 


24 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


thus  forming  rude  nests.  Many  of  the  half  eaten  leaves  die  and 
turn  brown,  rendering  the  nests  very  conspicuous. 

In  June  the  larvae  form  silken  cocoons  in  their  tubes,  and  trans- 
form therein  into  pupae,  from  which  the  moths  emerge  later. 

Re?nedies. — Slingerland,  from  whom  the  above  account  is  taken, 
recommends  that  the  trees  be  sprayed  with  Paris  Green  as  soon 
as  the  buds  begin  to  open,  followed  by  a second  application  a 
week  or  ten  days  later.  Later  spraying  may  also  be  advisable, 
but  the  trees  should  never  be  treated  when  in  bloom. 

Washington  Notes. — This  insect  was  introduced  in  1893  at 
Genesee,  Idaho,  only  a few  miles  from  the  Washington  line.  It 
came  on  nursery  stock  from  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  so  that  it  is  not  at 
all  unlikely  that  it  has  also  been  brought  into  this  state,  although 
it  has  not  yet  been  so  recorded.  It  should  be  looked  for,  how- 
ever, and  if  found  vigorously  combatted. 


-The  adults  (Fig  17)  measure 


NO.  8 — THE  apple  TINGIS  ( Corythuca  arcuata'). 

Diagnosis. — Minute  blackish  gauze- winged  insects,  congregated 
in  large  numbers  on  the  underside  of  the  leaves  of  apple  and 
hawthorn. 

Description  and  Life  History.- 
scarcely  one-eight  of  an  inch  in 
length.  Their  wings  are  beauti- 
fully veined,  looking  much  like  lace, 
nearly  transparent,  excepting  a 
smoky  tinged  blotch  on  the  outer 
anterior  angles,  a transvese  band  of 
the  same  near  the  tips,  and  a more 
or  less  distinct  longitudinal  band  of 
the  same  color  along  the  inner 
margin.  On  each  side  of  the  head 
is  a broad,  leaf-like  expansion  of  the 
same  structure  as  the  wings.  All 
stages  of  the  insect  may  sometimes 
be  found  on  the  same  leaf,  and  they 
are  quite  sluggish  in  their  movements. 

The  eggs  are  curiously  shaped  and  are  fastened  to  the  leaves 
and  covered  by  a shellac-like  substance.  The  larvae  and  active 
pupae  resemble  the  adult  in  shape,  but  are  wingless.  When 


fig.  17. — Apple  Tingis, 
larged. 


greatly  en- 


Bulletin  ij — Insect  Pests  of  the  Garden , Farm  and  Orchard  25 


abundant,  this  insect  weakens  the  plant  in  the  same  way  as 
aphides,  that  is,  by  puncturing  the  leaves  with  their  sharp  beaks 
and  sucking  juices  therefrom.  There  are  probably  several  broods 
a year,  but  they  are  most  common  in  August. 

Remedies. — Spray  with  kerosene  emulsion,  using  an  underspray 
nozzle. 

Washington  Notes. — Common  in  Western  Washington,  where 
it  seems  to  be  an  introduced  insect.  While  the  damage  it  does  is 
rarely  serious,  specimens  are  frequently  sent  to  this  station  for 
identification. 

no.  9. — THE  pear  or  CHERRY  slug.  ( Eriocampa  cerasi) . 

Diagnosis. — Attacking  the  leaves  of  the  pear,  cherry,  and 
quince.  Slug-like  larvae,  a half  inch  long,  olive-brown  in  color, 
covered  with  a slimy  substance. 

Description  and  Life  History. — The  adult  is  a small  four-winged 
saw-fly  nearly  one-fourth  of  an  inch  long,  and  spreading  about 
twice  that  much.  The  body  is  shiny  black,  the  wings  trans- 
parent with  smoky  shadings.  All  of  the  saw-flies  are  provided 
with  peculiar  saw-like  organs,  at  the  posterior  end  of  the  body, 
by  which  the  incisions  are  made  in  plants,  in  which  the  eggs  are 

laid.  Tire  first  brood  of 
saw-flies  appears  just  before 
the  cherries  are  ripe,  and 
the  eggs  are  laid  singly  in 
little  slits  cut  in  the  leaves. 
Shortly  after  the  cherries 
are  ripe  the  larvae  or  slugs 
may  be  found  in  abundance 
on  the  leaves,  of  which  they 

fig.  18.— Pear  and  cherry  slug,  fly  and  larvae.  Consume  Only  the  pulp, 

causing  these,  portions  of  the  leaf  to  turn  brown.  When  fully 
grown  the  slugs  crawl  or  fall  to  the  ground,  into  which  they  bur- 
row to  a depth  of  two  or  three  inches,  where  they  form  an  oval 
earthen  case,  glued  together  and  lined  by  a sticky,  glairy  slime. 
In  these  cases  the  larvae  become  pupae,  and  in  about  four  weeks 
the  adult  flies  emerge  therefrom.  These  deposit  eggs  for  the  sec- 
ond brood  of  larvae  which  appears  in  August.  This  second  brood 
passes  the  winter  as  pupae  in  the  ground.  (Fig.  18). 


26 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


Remedies. — Spray  with  Paris  Green  as  soon  as  the  slugs  ap- 
pear. In  the  case  of  cherry  trees  this  is  not  always  desirable, 
and  powdered  hellebore  in  the  proportion  of  one  pound  to  thirty 
gallons  of  water  may  be  used  instead. 

Where  the  slugs  are  not  abundant,  air-slaked  lime  or  even  road 
dust  will  destroy  many  of  them  if  dusted  liberally  on  the  foliage. 

Washington  Notes. — Abundant  in  most  parts  of  the  state,  hav- 
ing been  long  introduced.  It  does  serious  damage  at  times,  when 
not  promptly  destroyed. 


no.  io. — the  pear-leaf  blister  mite.  ( Phytoptus  pyri.) 
Diagnosis. — Bright  red  pimple-like  spots  on  young  developing 
pear  leaves,  most  conspicuous  on  the  upper  side.  Late  in  the 
season  the  pimple-like  galls  are  brownish  in  color,  forming  corky 
thickenings  on  the  under  sides  of  the  leaves. 


Description  and  Life  History. — The  adult  (Fig.  19)  is  a minute 
four-legged  mite  measuring  one  hundred  and 
fiftieth  (1-150)  of  an  inch  in  length,  being 
scarcely  visible  to  the  naked  eye.  Its  body  is 
cylindrical  in  form  and  marked  crosswise  by 
numerous  fine  striae.  As  soon  as  the  leaves 
burst  from  the  buds  in  spring  the  mites  bur- 
row into  them  forming  the  bright  red  galls 
(Fig.  20)  which  are  hollow,  and  have  a 
minute  opening  on  the  under  side  of  the  leaf. 
In  these  galls  eggs  are  laid  which  soon  hatch 
into  young  mites.  As  fast  as  new  leaves  are 
brought  forth,  other  mites  migrate  to  them, 
forming  new  galls,  and  this  process  continues 
as  long  as  leaves  are  developed.  Before  the 
Fig.  19.-Aduit  Pear  Leaf  leaves  fall  in  autumn  the  mites  crawl  back  to 
- maJSifiSi16’  Greatly  the  twigs  and  pass  the  winter  in  cracks  in  the 
bark  and  similar  places,  but  more  particularly  beneath  the  scales 
of  the  terminal  buds.  At  no  stage  of  the  mite’s  life  is  it  able  to 
move  fast,  but  the  pest  becomes  spread  from  tree  to  tree  by  crawl- 
ing on  insects,  the  feet  of  birds,  and  probably  in  other  similar 
ways.  The  damage  done  is  sometimes  quite  severe,  as  the  func- 
tion of  the  leaves  is  seriously  impaired  by  the  attacks  of  the  mite. 
The  diseased  leaves  also  fall  prematurely.  (Fig.  21). 


Bulletin  iy — Insect  Pests  of  the  Garden,  Farm  and  Orchard  27 


Remedies. — It  is  entirely  useless  to  attempt  to  destroy  this  mite 
during  the  summer,  as  it  is  then  protected  in  its  gall  in  the  leaf, 
so  that  anything  that  would  destroy  it,  would  destroy  or  seriously 
injure  the  leaf  also.  It  may  be  easily  destroyed  in  winter  by 
spraying  with  strong  kerosene  emulsion.  The  oil  penetrates  the 
crevices  in  the  bark  and  between  the  scales,  killing  ail  the  mites. 
For  this  purpose  dilute  the  the  kerosene  emulsion  with  only  three 
times  its  quantity  of  water. 


Washington  Notes. — This  pest 


% 


Fig.  20. — Pear-leaf  Blister-mite.  Section  of  a 
gall  in  spring.  At  n the  structure  of  the  leaf 
is  normal ; o,  the  opening  into  the  gall ; e, 
eggs. 


years  kill  off  large  numbers  of 


is  become  very  common  in  the 
state,  especially  the  Eastern 
part,  in  the  last  three  years 
and  seems  to  be  spreading  rap- 
idly. We  especially  caution 
fruit-growers  that  this  pest  is 
one  that  remains  in  an  orchard 
when  once  introduced  if  not 
vigorously  combatted.  Cli- 
matic conditions  may  in  some 
m,  but  this  is  too  uncertain  a 


factor  to  depend  upon. 

We  have  found  that  kerosene  emulsion  diluted  five  times,  as 


recommended  by  Slingerland,  does  not  destroy  the  mites  here. 


Fig.  21 — Pear.L,eaf  Blister-Mite  : section  of  leaf  showing  structure  of  gall  in 
autumn  ; n,  normal  structure  of  leaf;  g,  gall ; o,  opening  of  gall. 


no.  11. — The  cinnamon  Tussock-moth.  ( Orgyia  badiaf) 

Diagnosis.  Attacking  the  elm,  rose,  currant,  locust,  cypress, 
willow,  and  many  other  ornamental  trees  and  shrubs  ; long  haired 
caterpillars,  measuring  about  one  inch,  easily  recognized  by  the 
two  long  black  pencils  of  hair  on  the  front  end  of  the  body,  and  a 
single  similar  pencil  on  the  hind  end. 

Description  and  Life  History. — In  late  fall  or  winter  numerous 
cocoons  may  be  found  under  the  eaves  of  buildings,  on  the  twigs 
of  trees,  and  in  other  sheltered  situations.  Many  of  these  will  be 


28 


Washington  Agricultural.  Experiment  Station 


completely  covered  on  the  outside  with  a single  layer  of  pale 
wood- colored  spherical  eggs,  each  of  which  has  a brownish  pit 
near  the  center.  Other  cocoons  will  have  no  eggs  on  them,  and 
all  of  the  cocoons  are  empty,  or  contain  only  the  pupae  of  para- 
sites. These  are  the  cocoons  of  the  Tussock-moth.  Early  in 
summer  the  eggs  hatch  into  larvae  which  at  once  crawl  on  to  the 
leaves  and  begin  to  devour  them.  They  become  fully  grown  in 
August.  At  this  time  they  are  an  inch  or  more  long.  Besides 
the  pencils  of  hair  already  mentioned,  there  are  four  brush-like 
tufts  of  brownish  hair,  the  first  on  the  fifth  segment  of  the  body, 
and  one  each  on  the  three  following  segments.  The  remaining  hair 
of  the  body  is  black  and  yellow  intermixed.  The  larvae  (Fig.  24) 
become  fully  grown  late  in  August  or  in  September,  and  crawling  to 
a suitable  place  construct  the  whitish  or  brownish  cocoons,  in 


which  they  change  to  pupae.  A short  time  afterwards  the  adults 
emerge,  The  male  (Fig.  22)  expands  one  inch,  and  is  of  a dark 
cinnamon  color.  The  fore  wings  are  rather  darker  than  the  hind 
wings,  and  are  crossed  near  the  middle  by  a broad  paler  band. 
At  the  posterior  outer  angle  is  a small  bean-shaped  white  spot. 
The  hind  wings  are  unmarked. 

The  female  is  a very  different  creature,  (Fig.  23  a)  never  attain- 
ing but  the  merest  rudiments  of  wings  ; her  body  is  dull  gray  in 
color,  and  oval  in  form.  After  emerging  from  the  pupa  she  crawls 
on  the  cocoon  and  awaits  the  attendance  of  the  male,  after  which 
she  lays  the  eggs  on  top  of  the  cocoon.  As  the  eggs  are  laid,  she 
gradually  decreases  in  size,  and  when  her  work  is  accomplished 
falls  to  the  ground  and  dies.  So  far  as  our  observations  go  there 
seems  to  be  but  a single  brood  each  year. 

Remedies . — Tike  other  caterpillars,  this  species  may  be  very 


Fig.  22.  — Tussock 
Moth,  adult  male. 


Fig.  23. — Tussock  Moth:  a,  female  moth  ; b,  young 
larva  ; c,  female  pupa  ; d , male  pupa. 


Bulletin  ij — Insect  Pests  of  the  Garden , Farm  aiid  Orchard  29 


abundant  one  year,  and  very  rare  the  next.  When  abundant 
spray  with  arsenites. 

In  winter  all  the  cocoons  covered  with  eggs  should  be  gathered 
and  burned.  The  other  cocoons  should  be  left,  as  they  contain 
either  empty  pupal  skins,  or  else  the  pupae  of  parasites  which 
destroy  the  caterpillars. 

Washington  Notes. — Not  found  in  the  state  except  west  of  the 
Cascade  mountains.  We  have  reared  from  the  eggs  a minute 
parasite  (. Lampronota  sp .),  and  from  the  pupae  the  ichneumon 
fly,  Pimpla  pterelas , Say.  These  parasites  do  much  to  keep  down 
the  numbers  of  the  Tussock-moth. 

no.  12 — Cutworms. 

Larva  of  Noctuid  Moths  of  Many  Species. 

Diagnosis. — Earthy  colored  larvae  differently  marked  in  the 
various  species,  from  one  inch  to  two  inches  long.  Cutting  off 
tender  plants  near  the  surface  of  the  ground,  or  eating  the  leaves  ; 
some  species  also  climb  trees  and  devour  the  foliage  ; feeding  only 
at  night,  burrowing  into  the  ground  during  the  day. 

Description  and  Life  History. — The  cutworms  are  all  larvae  of 
the  various  species  of  Owlet  moths  ( family 
Noctuida  ) , which  in  their  habits  are  all  very 
similar.  Nearly  all  of  them  are  protectively 
colored  to  resemble  the  soil.  The  adult 
moths  fly  mainly  at  night,  and  the  eggs  are 
deposited  on  the  various  food  plants,  soon 
after  these  hatch  into  larvae.  The  larvae  feed 
only  at  night,  concealing  themselves  under 
sticks  or  stones,  or  burrowing  in  the  ground 
in  the  daytime.  Most  of  them  eat  only  low- 
growing  plants,  but  the  very  common  dark- 
sided cutworm  ( Carneades  messoria  ) climbs 
up  the  trunks  of  trees.  When  fully  grown 
the  larvae  construct  earthen  cocoons  two  or 
three  inches  beneath  the  surface  of  the 
ground,  and  change  therein  to  mahogany 
colored  pupae.  Some  time  later  the  adult  moth  larva  of  Tuss'ock  Moth- 
emerges  therefrom.  Many  of  the  species  produce  two  broods 
each  year. 


30 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


Remedies. — If  the  worms  are  attacking  young  plants,  such  as 
cabbage  and  tomato,  the  best  method  is  to  find  the  worms  and  de- 
stroy them.  This  method  is  very  effective  and  one  person  can  go 
over  a large  field  in  a day.  Where  indications  are  found  of  the 
insects  work,  the  worm  is  sure  to  be  found  in  the  soil  near  the 
root  of  the  plant  attacked. 

For  climbing  cutworms,  or  when  they  are  attacking  well-grown 
plants,  spray  with  Paris  Green.  Sometimes  it  is  desirable  to  de- 
stroy cutworms  in  the  ground  before  setting  out  a crop.  This 
can  be  done  by  tying  clover  or  other  succulent  green  plants  into 


Fig.  25.— Dark-sided  Cut-worm  : larva  and  inago. 


Fig.  26.— Glassy  Cut-worm  larva,  nat-  Fig.  27.— Parent  Moth  of  the  Glassy 

ural  size,  and  one  segment  en-  Cut-worm, 

larged  to  show  arrangement  of  naris 


tight  balls.  These  balls  are  then  soaked  in  Paris  Green  water, 
( use  one  ounce  to  ten  gallons  water  ) and  the  poisoned  baits  scat- 
tered over  the  field.  The  baits  will  keep  fresh  longer  if  covered 
with  a light  board.  The  cutworms  find  the  baits  and  feeding 
upon  them  are  destroyed,  but  as  the  poison  acts  slowly  it  is  only 
rarely  that  dead  worms  are  found  about  the  baits. 

The  use  of  tin  cylinders  ( tomato  cans  with  the  ends  taken  out 
are  excellent ) is  sometimes  resorted  to  to  protect  young  plants. 

Washington  Notes. — Two  of  our  most  troublesome  cut  worms 
are  Corneades  messoria  ( Fig.  25)  and  Hadena  devastate  ix  ) Figs. 
26  and  27). 


Bulletin  ij — Insect  Pests  of  the  Garden , Farm  and  Orchard  31 


NO.  13.^-THE  FivATHKADKD  apple  TREE  BORER.  ( Chrysobothris 

femorata. ) 

Diagnosis. — Discolored  spots  on  the  bark  of  the  trunk,  from  a 
hole  in  which  sawdust-like  particles  frequently  protrude.  Exam- 
ination usually  discloses  a whitish  grub  beneath.  Trees  with 
cracked  or  injured  bark,  or  sickly  trees  are  most  liable  to  attack. 
In  midsummer  the  very  active  adult  beetle  may  be  seen  on  the 
sunny  side  of  the  trunks. 

Description  and  Life  History.  The  adult  (Fig.  27  *4)  is  an  oval 
beetle  about  one-half  an  inch  long,  of  a shin- 
ing bronze  olor  ; the  underside  looking  like 
burnished  copper.  The  eggs  are  laid  in  mid- 
summer and  soon  hatch  into  small  larvae 
which  burrow  through  the  bark  into  the 
trunk,  cutting  out  broad  flattish  tunnels. 
Usually  the  borings  of  this  species  is  confined 
to  the  sap  wood,  on  the  juice  of  which  the 
larva  lives.  Rarely  a single  borer  will  com- 
pletely girdle  a tree,  which  in  such  a case  of 
course  dies.  The  peculiar  shape  and  broad 
a,  larva;  b,  pupa;  c,  front  flat  head  of  this  borer  (Fig.  27,  a ) at  once 

of  larva , d,  beetle.  distinguish  it.  Before  changing  into  a 

pupa  the  larva  burrows  out  partly  through  the  bark  ; about  three 
weeks  later  it  emerges  as  a perfect  beetle.  From  the  laying  of  the 
egg  to  the  emerging  of  the  adult  occupies  just  a year. 

Remedies. — The  best  remedy  is  to  prevent  the  beetles  from  lay- 
ing their  eggs  on  the  tree:  This  can  be  done  by  keeping  the 

trunk  covered  with  some  soap  solution  during  June  and  July.  An 
excellent  solution  for  the  purpose  is  made  by  adding  one  part 
crude  carbolic  acid  to  twelve  or  fifteen  parts  soft  soap.  This  can 
can  be  applied  to  the  trunk  and  larger  branches  with  a broom  or 
white-wash  brush.  Two  applications  are  necessary,  one  early  in 
June  and  the  second  a month  later.  Especial  care  should  be 
taken  to  protect  the  base  of  the  trunk.  In  the  fall  the  trees 
should  be  carefully  examined  for  the  borers.  Their  presence  is 
disclosed  by  the  discolored  spot  and  sawdust  like  castings.  When 
found  they  can  be  easily  cut  out  with  a sharp  knife  and  de- 
stroyed. 


32 


Washingto7i  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


Washington  Notes. — Found  throughout  the  state,  but  apparent^ 
not  very  abundant  as  yet.  It  is  probable  that  a great  deal  of 
the  damage  ascribed  to  this  insect  is  done  by  the  nearly  related 
beetle,  Dicerca  divaricata.  Attacks  also  the  plum,  pear  and 
cherry,  and  rarely  the  peach,  besides  various  other  trees. 

no.  14. — THE  snowy  TREE  cricket.  ( Oecanthus  niveus.) 

Diagnosis . — Rows  of  punctures  in  the  stems  of  raspberries, 
grapes,  and  many  other  shrubs  ; in  the  bottom  of  each  puncture 
in  the  pith  is  a long  narrow  egg.  Where  the  stem  was  punctured 
the  previous  year,  there  is  usually  a split  on  one  side,  from  one  to 
several  inches  in  length. 

Description  and  Life  History. — The  adult  male  (Fig.  28)  of  the 
Snowy  Tree  Cricket  is  somewhat  less  than  an  inch  long,  with  pale 


Fig.  28 — Snowy  Tree 

Cricket;  male.  Fig.  29. — Snowy  Tree  Cricket;  female. 


greenish- white,  nearly  transparent,  flat  wings.  The  female  (Fig. 
29)  is  similar  in  size  and  color  but  with  much  narrower  wings,  bent 
down  at  the  sides  ; she  is  also  provided  with  a sharp  ovipositor  by 
which  the  punctures  are  made  in  the  twigs,  and  through  which  the 
eggs  are  laid.  The  eggs  are  laid  late  in  fall  and  hatch  early  in  the 
following  summer.  When  young,  the  crickets  are  very  active, 
and  run  about  over  the  plants,  feeding  on  plant  lice,  and  they  are 
even  said  to  devour  each  other.  After  they  have  attained  their 
full  growth  they  feed  on  the  tender  shoots  of  various  shrubs,  and 
sometimes  do  small  damage  in  this  way.  The  eggs  (Fig.  30) 
are  laid  in  the  pith  of  the  stems  of  raspberries,  grapes,  roses, 
apples,  peaches,  plums,  elder,  willow,  poplar,  and  many  other 
trees  and  shrubs ; indeed  it  is  doubtful  if  any  trees  are  immune 
from  attack,  the  only  requisite  being  a twig  provided  with  pith. 
However,  shrubs  in  which  the  wood  is  thin  and  the  pith  abund- 


Bulletin  iy  -Insect  Pests  of  the  Garden , Farm  and  Orchard  33 


ant,  such  as  roses,  raspberries,  grapes,  elder  and  willow,  are 
much  preferred  by  the  insect.  The  eggs  have  also  been  recorded 
from  various  herbs,  such  as  goldenrod,  sun- 
flower, etc.  The  principal  damage  consists 
in  weakening  the  stem,  so  that  it  breaks  on 
the  slightest  provocation,  but  the  good  that 
the  insect  does  in  the  young  state,  by  destroy- 
ing plant  lice,  nearly  compensates  for  the 
damage  it  does  later. 

Remedies. — The  only  remedy  is  to  cut  out 
the  attacked  canes  or  twigs  and  burn  them,  so 
as  to  destroy  the  eggs.  It  is  doubtful  if  this 
is  of  much  efficacy  if  there  is  native  shrubbery, 
as  the  insect  breeds  equally  well  in  various 
shrubs ; still  it  is  the  only  way  to  reduce  their 
numbers  at  all. 

Washington  Notes. — Abundant  in  the 
warmer  valleys  of  Eastern  Washington,  such 
as  Yakima,  Snake  River,  and  Walla  Walla. 

Much  rarer  in  Western  Washington.  The 
adults  are  very  abundant  in  July,  August  and 
September,  but  are  not  often  seen,  owing  to 
the  way  they  conceal  themselves,  and  to  their  Flcrick^ff  Tipber^ 
protective  coloration.  tS?esS;hy™ 

The  males  are  musical,  and  throughout  the  ISviewoTlgg.11138111 
warm  summer  nights  their  rather  pleasant  chirping  notes  may  be 
heard. 


no.  15. — THK  currant  BORKR.  ( Sesia  tipuliformis') . 

Diagnosis. — Infesting  the  currant  and  more  rarely  the  goose- 
berry. Whitish  grub  like  larvae  burrowing  channels  in  the  pith 
of  the  stem,  causing  the  foliage  to  look  unhealthy 
and  the  fruit  to  be  smaller  in  size  ; sometimes  the 
stems  die. 

Description  and  Life  History. — This  destruc- 
tive larva  is  the  young  of  the  wasp-like  moth  fig.  31.— currant 
shown  in  Fig.  31.  Tike  so  many  others  of  our  natuaisize.- 
injurious  insects  it  has  been  imported  from  Europe.  The  moths 
first  appear  late  in  June  and  may  then  be  seen  rapidly  flitting 


34 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


about  the  carrant  bushes  in  the  bright  sunshine.  They  measure 
about  three  fourths  of  an  inch  in  length,  and  spread  about  the 
same.  The  bodj^  is  bluish  in  color,  with  three  golden  bands  near 
the  middle.  Excepting  the  brownish-black  tips,  the  wings  are 
quite  transparent. 

The  eggs  are  laid  singly  near  the  buds,  and  in  a few  days 
hatch  into  minute  larvae  which  at  once  eat  their  way  to  the  pith, 
and  then  bore  up  and  down  in  the  stem  for  several  inches,  en- 
larging the  channel  as  they  grow  older.  When  fully  developed 
the  larva  (Fig.  32  b .)  is  a soft  whitish 
grub,  with  a darker  line  along  the  back, 
the  head  and  legs  being  brown.  The 
larva  changes  into  a pupa  (Fig.  32,  a ) in 
its  nest,  before  doing  which,  however,  it 
eats  a passage  nearly  through  the  stem, 
leaving  only  a thin  covering  of  bark. 

When  the  pupa  is  ready  to  transform,  it 
wriggles  its  way  into  this  passage,  burst- 
ing the  thin  covering,  and  then  partially  protrudes  itself  out  of 
the  opening.  A split  then  appears  down  its  back  through  which 
the  adult  moth  escapes.  There  seems  to  be  but  one  brood  a 
year. 

Remedies. — The  only  way  to  fight  this  insect  profitably  is  to 
cut  out  and  burn  the  infested  canes.  This  should  be  done  in 
spring  or  fall. 

Washington  Notes. — Quite  abundant  in  the  western  part  of  the 
state,  where  it  is  the  most  serious  enemy  of  the  currant. 

no.  16. — the  yeeeow  wooixy-bear.  ( Spilosoma  Virginica ). 

Diagnosis. — Yellowish,  long-haired  caterpillars,  one  and  one- 
half  inches  long,  feeding  on  various  plants,  among  them,  apple, 
rose,  currant,  asparagus  ; indeed  there  are  few  plants  that  it  will 
not  feed  upon. 

Description  and  Life  History. — The  adult  (Fig.  33  c ) is  a moth, 
spreading  about  one  and  three-fourths  inches,  nearly  pure  white  in 
color.  The  exceptions  to  this  color  are  two  small  black  spots,  one 
in  the  center  of  each  fore  wing  ; and  three  similar  spots  on  each  hind 
wing.  Occasionally  the  spots  are  nearly  or  entirety  obliterated. 
The  abdomen  is  marked  by  three  rows  of  black  dots,  one  on  the 


Fig.  32. — Currant  Borer,  b, 
larva  ; a,  pupa,  both  much 
enlarged. 


Bulletin  ij  —Insect  Pests  of  the  Garden , Farm  and  Orchard  35 


top,  and  one  on  each  side.  Between  the  dots  on  the  sides  are 
broad  orange  splotches. 

The  eggs  are  deposited  in  clusters  on  the  leaves  of  the  insect’s 
various  food  plants,  and  in  a few  days  hatch  into  larvae.  These 
at  first  are  gregarious,  but  soon  separate,  so  that  half  or  fully 
grown  larvae  are  usually  alone.  The  full  grown  caterpillars  (Fig. 
33  a ) measure  one  and  one-half  inches  in  length.  Their  color  varies 
from  nearly  white  to  dark  brown.  There  are  two  broods  each 
year,  the  second  brood  of  caterpillars,  which  appear  in  September 
and  October,  being  very  much  more  numerous  than  the  first. 

When  fully  grown  the  larva  constructs  a brownish  cocoon  of  its 
own  hair,  and  changes  therein  to  a pupa,  (Fig.  33  b ) and  in  this 
condition  passes  the  winter.  The  adults  emerge  in  May,  and  be- 
come the  parents  of  the  first  brood  of  larvae. 


cc 

fig.  33— Yellow  Woolly  Bear,  a,  larva  ; b,  pupa  ; c,  female  moth. 

Remedies. — Ordinarily  the  insect  is  not  so  abundant  but  that  it 
can  easily  be  controlled  by  gathering  the  larvae  and  destroying 
them.  This  is  best  done  when  they  are  young.  If  very  abund- 
ant, spray  with  Paris  Green  or  Tondon  Purple. 

Washington  Notes. — Found  throughout  the  state,  it  being  a 
native,  but  much  the  more  abundant  west  of  the  Cascades. 

no.  17. — san  JOSE  SCAEE.  ( Aspidiotus  perniciosus') . 

Diagnosis. — Attacking  the  apple,  pear,  peach,  plum,  cherry, 
and  perhaps  all  deciduous  shrubs  or  trees.  Minute  circular  scales, 
smaller  than  a pin  heed,  causing  bright  red  ring-like  spots  on  the 
fruit  of  apple,  pear,  peach,  and  plum.  No  other  scale  insect  does 


36 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


this . When  numerous  they  completely  cover  the  branches  and 
twigs,  giving  them  a characteristic  whitish  mealy  appearance. 
Upon  scraping  such  a twig  with  the  finger-nail,  a yellowish  oily 
fluid  will  be  seen,  which  comes  from  the  crushed  bodies  of  the 
scales.  Cutting  a strip  of  the  bark  on  badly  infested  trees  will 
disclose  a brownish  discoloration  which  may  also  extend  to  the 
wood. 

Description  and  Life  History.  The  San  Jose  scale  is  at  once 
distinguished  from  other  pests  of  this  family  by  the  small  size  of 
the  scales,  which  measure  commonly  about  one  sixteenth  of  an 
inch  in  diameter,  though  rarely  specimens  may  be  found  nearly 
an  eighth  of  an  inch  across.  The  scales  (Fig.  34)  are  circular, 
somewhat  elevated  in  the  middle,  which  bears  a small  black  or 
yellowish  pointed  process.  In  badly  infested  orchards  they  com- 
pletely cover  the  trees,  (Fig.  35)  giving  the  branches  an  unhealthy, 
grayish,  scurfy  appearance. 

In  winter  the  scales  are  to  be  found  only  in  a half  or  nearly 
full-grown  condition,  and  completely  dormant.  With  the  first 
flow  of  sap  in  spring  they  begin  to  feed  again,  and  become  fully 
grown  in  May  and  June,  when  the  first  brood  of  larvae  is  pro- 
duced. As  far  as  known  all  these  larvae  (Fig.  36)  are  born  alive. 
They  move  about  actively  for  a few  hours  or  even  a day  or  more, 
finally  settling  on  tender  twigs,  leaves,  or  fruit,  into  which  they 
gradually  insert  their  beaks  and  begin  to  absorb  juices  from  the 
plant. 

From  this  time  on,  broods  are  produced  incessantly  through 
the  summer,  and  the  insect  can  be  found  in  all  stages  until  the 
leaves  fall  in  October.  Shortly  after  settling  on  a spot,  the  larvae 
secrete  a waxy  substance,  the  beginning  of  the  formation  of  a 
scale. 

“ In  two  days  the  insect  becomes  invisible,  being  covered  by  a 
pale  grayish-yellow  shield,  with  a projecting  nipple  at  the  center. 
This  nipple  is  at  first  white  in  color.  Twelve  days  after  hatching 
the  first  skin  is  cast.  The  males  at  this  time  are  rather  larger 
than  the  females,  which  have  large  purple  eyes,  while  the  fe- 
males have  lost  their  eyes  entirely.  The  legs  and  antennae  have 
disappeared  in  both  cases.  Six  days  later  the  males  begin  to 
change  to  pupae,  while  the  females  have  not  yet  cast  their  second 
skin.  At  this  time  the  females  are  so  tightly  cemented  to  the 


Bulletin  iy — bisect  Pests  of  the  Garden , Farm  and  Orchard  37 


CL 

fig.  34 — San  Jose  Scale,  <z,  California  Pear,  moderately  infested — natural  size; 
b,  female  scale,  enlarged. 


Pis'-  35 — San  Jose  Scale.  Apple  branch  with  scales  in  situ — 
natural  size  ; enlarged  scales  above  at  left. 


38 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


scale  that  they  can  not  be  removed  without  crushing.  In  two  or 
three  days  more,  or  twenty  to  twenty- one  days  after  hatching, 
the  females  cast  their  second  skin,  which  splits  around  the  margin 
of  the  body.  At  twenty-four  days  the  males  begin  to  issue,  emerg- 
ing from  the  scales  as  a general  thing  at  night.  At  thirty  days 
the  females  are  fully  grown  and  embryonic  young  can  be  seen  in 
their  bodies  (Fig.  37)  ; and  at  from  thirty- three  to  forty  days  the 
larvae  begin  to  make  their  appearance.”  [Howard.] 

The  adult  male  (Fig.  38)  is  a delicate  two- winged  creature, 
bearing  a straight  stoutish  appendage  at  the  posterior  end.  It 
lives  in  this  adult  condition  but  a short  time. 


The  female  never  attains  wings  or  leaves  the  scale,  after  it  is 
once  formed. 

Only  in  the  active  larval  condition  can  the  pest  become  spread. 
This  is  greatly  facilitated  by  the  habit  of  the  larvae  of  crawling 
on  other  insects  or  on  the  feet  of  birds,  and  being  thus  carried 
from  tree  to  tree. 

Remedies. — The  remedy  universally  used  on  the  Pacific  Coast  is 
the  sulphur,  lime  and  salt  solution,  to  be  applied  as  a winter- 
spray.  In  California  and  in  this  state,  judging  from  the  testimony 
of  numerous  orchardists,  this  solution  has  proven  to  be  a perfect 
remedy.  In  one  orchard  that  has  come  under  our  observation  the 


Bulletin  iy — Bisect  Pests  of  the  Garden , Farm  and  Orchard  39 


Fig-  36 — San  Jose  Scale,  a,  young  larva,  greatly 
enlarged  ; b,  antennse  of  same,  still  more 
enlarged. 


Fig*  37 — San  Jose  Scale,  c , adult  female  containing 
young,  greatly  enlarged  ; d,  anal  fringe  of  same 
still  more  enlarged. 


40 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


scale  has  been  entirely  extirpated  by  this  remedy.  In  another 
orchard  we  found  a very  different  state  of  affairs,  which  may  how- 
ever not  have  been  the  fault  of  the  spray. 

Mr.  Iy.  O.  Howard  has  found  the  sulphur,  lime  and  salt  spray 
entirely  eneffective  against  the  San  Jose  scale  in  the  East.  The 
only  completely  effective  solutions  there  were  found  to  be  whale-oil 
soap — whale-oil  soap  two  pounds,  water  one  gallon — and  the  resin 
solution  in  six  times  its  ordinary  strength.  Both  of  these  are  ex- 
pensive, the  latter  the  more  so.  For  the  present  we  advise  the 
use  of  the  sulphur,  lime  and  salt,  and  we  especially  desire  to  hear 
the  experience  of  orchardists  with  this  substance. 

Washington  Notes. — Introduced  in  this  state  for  at  least  ten 
year.  Quite  generally  distributed  in  Eastern  Washington,  especi- 
ally in  the  older  orchards.  Reported  in  Western  Washington 
only  from  Vancouver  (C.  A.  Tonneson.) 


fig.  51 — Oyster  Shell  Bark  kouse.  i,egg;  2,  larva  just  hatched  ; 3,  larva  when  forming 
scale  ; 4,  scale  after  second  plate  is  formed  ; 5,  6,  forms  of  louse  taken  from  scale  ; 7 
fully  formed  scale,  all  greatly  enlarged. 

no.  18. — THE  OYSTER-SHELE  SCAEE.  ( Mytilaspis pomorumP) 

Diagnosis. — Infecting  the  trunk,  branches  and  especially  the 
twigs  of  the  apple  and  pear.  Small  scale-like  insects,  shaped 
somewhat  similar  to  an  oyster  shell.  Apparently  lifeless,  and 
sometimes  crowded  so  closely  together  that  the  bark  beneath  them 
cannot  be  seen. 

Description  and  Life  History. — Like  all  scale  insects,  this  species 
sucks  the  juices  of  the  tree  through  a sharp  beak,  which  it  inserts 
into  the  tender  twigs,  and  having  once  located  on  a spot,  remains 
there  through  its  life.  Under  most  of  the  scales  which  are  females 


Bulletin  17 — Insect  Pests  of  the  Garden , Farm  and  Orchard  41 


will  be  found  in  early  spring  from  twenty  to  fifty  or  more  minute 
eggs.  These  hatch  in  May  and  June  into  very  small  yellowish 
larvae  which  run  actively  over  the  tree.  Most  of  them  soon  locate 
themselves  near  the  tips  of  the  twigs,  insert  their  beaks  and  be- 
gin to  suck  sap.  A waxy  substance  exudes  from  their  skin,  and 
as  the  insects  become  mature  this  secretion  gradually 
becomes  formed  into  a leathery  scale,  which  serves 
as  protection.  Late  in  summer  the  female  scales 
lay  their  eggs,  after  which  they  perish.  At  this  time 
these  scales  will  be  found  to  contain  nothing  but 
masses  of  eggs,  which  remain  in  this  condition  over 
winter,  hatching  early  the  next  season. 

The  male  scales  are  much  less  common  than  the 
female.  In  July  the  males  acquire  wings  and  for  a 
short  time  fly  about,  dying  after  mating  with  the 
females.  The  latter  are  wingless  throughout  their 
lives. 

The  insects  spread  from  tree  to  tree  in  the  active 
larval  stage,  which  lasts  but  a few  days.  Undoubt- 
edly many  are  carried  from  tree  to  tree  by  cling-  Flbt’rk  Covered 
ing  to  other  insects,  spiders,  and  the  feet  of  birds,  with  oyster- 

/t-v-  j x shell  Bark-louse- 

(Figs.  51  and  52). 


Remedies. — In  fall  or  winter  scrape  as  many  of  the  scales  from 
the  bark  as  possible.  If  only  a few  trees  are  affected,  use  a wash 
made  by  dissolving  two  pounds  of  wdiale  oil  soap  in  one  gallon  of 
water.  Kerosene  emulsion  diluted  with  only  one  part  water,  or 
resin  soap  (winter  formula)  will  destroy  most  of  the  scales. 

The  above  remedies  are  to  be  used  only  when  the  trees  are  dormant. 

In  May  and  June,  when  the  young  scales  are  unprotected,  great 
numbers  of  them  can  be  destroyed  by  spraying  with  kerosene 
emulsion,  ordinary  strength. 


Washington  Notes. — This  insect  has  been  introduced  in  the 
state  for  several  years,  and  in  some  orchards  has  done  serious  in- 
jury, notably  in  Western  Washington.  While  rather  difficult  to 
exterminate  in  the  first  place,  no  pains  should  be  spared  in  doing 
this,  as  an  orchard  free  from  it  is  in  very  little  danger  of  again 
becoming  infested,  unless  there  are  scales  in  immediately  adjoin- 
ing orchards. 


42 


Washhigton  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


NO.  19. — THE  PEPPER- AND -S  ART  CURRANT  MOTH. 

( Eubyia  cognataria). 

Diagnosis. — Long,  smooth,  green  or  brownish  caterpillars, 
which  are  ‘ ‘ measuring  worms  ; ’ ’ when  not  feeding  they  lie  close 
to  the  stems,  or  clinging  only  by  the  hind  pair  of  false  legs,  ex- 
tend their  bodies  at  an  angle  from  the  twigs,  which  they  very 
closely  resemble.  Feeding  on  currant,  rose  spiraea,  tamerix  and 
perhaps  other  plants. 

Description  aiid  Life  History. — The  adult  is  a handsome  moth, 

spreading  nearly  two  inches, 
(Fig  39),  and  easily  recog- 
nized by  its  pepper-and-salt 
markings.  They  are  on  the 
wing  in  June  and  July.  The 
larvae  become  fully  grown 

fig.  39.— Peper-and-sait  Currant  Moth.  in  September,  when  they  de- 
scend to  the  ground,  into  which  they  burrow  for  two  or  three 
inches  and  there  transform  into  brownish  pupa.  From  these  the 
moths  emerge  the  next  year. 

Remedies. — Usually  not  so  abundant  but  that  they  may  be 
easily  controlled  by  hand  picking.  If  numerous,  spray  with  the 
arsenites. 

Washington  Notes. — Found  in  all  parts  of  the  state,  where  it  is 
native.  It  is  usually  more  partial  to  currants,  but  we  have  found 
it  in  abundance  on  rose  and  tamerix. 

no.  20 — the  box-eeder  bug.  ( Leptocoris  trivittus , Say). 

Diagnosis — Dull  blackish  bugs  a half  inch  long,  marked  with 
reddish  lines  ; infesting  the  box- elder  and  fruit  trees,  and  congre- 
gating on  the  sunny  sides  of  houses,  especially  in  spring  and  fall ; 
they  frequently  become  troublesome  in  houses  also. 

Description  and  Life  History. — The  adults  may  be  found  at  all 
seasons  of  the  year,  but  are  most  abundant  in  summer  and  fall. 
They  pass  the  winter  hibernating  under  fallen  leaves,  boards,  and 
in  similar  sheltered  places.  In  spring  they  betake  themselves  to 
the  trees,  and  lay  their  eggs  in  the  crevices  of  the  bark.  These 
soon  hatch  into  young  which  closely  resemble  the  adult  except- 
ing that  they  ars  wingless,  and  bright  red  in  color.  Although 


Bulletin  iy — Bisect  Pests  of  the  Garden,  Farm  and  Orchard  43 


immature  stages  may  be  found  throughout  the  summer,  there 
seems  to  be  but  a single  brood  each  year. 

The  adults  as  well  as  the  young  possess  no  biting  jaws,  but 
only  a sharp  sucking  tube,  which  they  insert  into  tender  twigs  or 
leaves  and  suck  sap.  They  also  injure  the  fruit  of  various  trees 
by  puncturing  it  and  sucking  the  juices. 

In  the  house  they  are  entirely  harmless,  except  from  their  un- 
pleasant habit  of  crawling  over  everything,  dropping  into  milk 
pans,  etc. 

Remedies. — The  box- elder  bug  is  a difficult  insect  to  deal  with. 
Tike  other  pests  it  may  be  very  abundant  one  year  and  nearly 
absent  the  next.  The  box-elder  tree  is  their  natural  food,  so  that 
this  tree  should  not  be  planted. 

Immense  numbers  of  them  may  be  killed,  especially  in  spring 
and  fall  when  they  congregate  on  the  sides  of  buildings,  etc.,  by 
spraying  with  kerosene  or  strong  kerosene  emulsion  ; boiling 
water  may  be  used  for  the  same  purpose,  or  a flat  board  may  be 
used  to  crush  them. 

Washington  Notes. — Abundant  throughout  Eastern  Washington 
a natural  result  of  the  too  common  planting  of  the  box-elder  tree. 
Their  habit  of  puncturing  fruit  seems  to  be  indulged  in  only  when 
their  natural  food  is  scarce. 

APHIDIDAE  OR  PEANT  RICE. 

The  life  histories  of  all  the  plant  lice  are  quite  similar  to  each 
other,  while  on  the  other  hand  they  are  very  different  from  the 
life  histories  of  most  other  insects.  The  aphides  themselves,  al- 
though of  many  species,  resemble  each  other  very  closely.  They 
are  minute  soft-bodied  insects,  most  species  colored  green  like  the 
plants  they  feed  upon  ; others,  however,  are  reddish  or  blackish, 
and  some  secrete  from  their  bodies  and  cover  themselves  with  a 
flacculent  white  waxy  substance,  which  gives  them  a woolly  or 
cottony  appearance.  All  of  the  species  obtain  their  food  by  in- 
serting their  sharp  beaks  into  the  leaves,  stems  or  root  of  their 
host  plant,  and  sucking  j uices  therefrom.  When  feeding  on  the 
leaves,  their  presence  may  be  detected  by  the  paler  color  of  the 
infested  leaves,  and  frequently  by  the  distortion  of  the  foliage. 
Some  forms  secrete  an  irritating  liquid  and  cause  true  galls  to  be 
formed  on  the  leaves,  in  which  they  live  quite  well  protected. 


44 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


Most  of  the  root  feeding  species  cause  galls  to  appear  as  the  re- 
sult of  their  attacks.  The  same  species  of  aphis  may  exist  in 
both  leaf  and  root-infesting  forms.  Most  of  the  species  are  pro- 
vided with  two  short  honey  tubes  on  the  back  of  the  abdomen, 
which  secrete  a sweet  sticky  fluid,  called  honey-dew.  Ants  are 
very  fond  of  this  honey-dew,  and  are  sure  to  be  found  in  numbers 
on  any  plant  infested  with  the  aphides. 

So  far  as  known  all  aphides  pass  the  winter  in  the  condition  of 
eggs,  which  are  deposited  on  the  food  plant  of  the  species.  These 
eggs  hatch  in  spring,  and  produce  wingless  females  only . These 
females  bring  forth  living  young,  entirely  without  the  interven- 
tion of  the  males  ; this  process  is  called  Parthenogenesis. 

Each  parthenogenetic  female  bears  from  two  to  three  young 
daily  for  a period  varying  from  two  to  four  weeks  in  the  differnet 
species.  The  young  bear  progeny  when  about  a week  or  ten  days 
old,  in  the  same  manner  as  the  mother.  Some  of  the  later  gen- 
erations are  winged,  and  thus  the  species  spreads  rapidly  from 
place  to  place. 

The  last  generation  in  the  year  brought  forth  by  the  partheno- 
genetic female  develops  into  perfect  sexual  males  and  females,  the 
latter  wingless.  After  pairing  the  winter  eggs  are  laid. 

The  increase  in  numbers  of  all  species  of  aphis  is  so  rapid  that 
the  progeny  of  a single  individual  may  amount  in  a single  season 
to  over  a trillion  individuals.  For  this  reason  early  sprayings  are 
of  great  importance  for  this  class  of  insects. 

Natural  Enemies. — The  soft  unprotected  bodies  of  the  aphides 
subject  them  to  many  insect  enemies.  The  most  important  of 
these  are  the  ‘ladybird’  beetles,  or  coccinellidae  (Fig.  i);  the 
golden-eyed  fly,  chrysopa,  (Fig.  2)  ; and  the  syrphus  flies. 

All  of  these  feed  on  the  aphides,  the  first  both  in  its  adult  and 
larval  states,  the  others  only  in  their  larval  conditions. 

Besides  these  immense  numbers  of  the  plant  lice  are  destroyed 
by  the  minute  parasitic  ichneumon  and  chalcid  flies,  which  lay 
their  eggs  in  the  bodies  of  their  victims,  finally  destroying  them. 
Sometimes  the  aphides  are  held  entirely  in  check  by  their  enemies, 
but  more  frequently  they  require  vigorous  combatting. 

Remedies. — Most  species  of  plant  lice  can  easily  be  destroyed 
except  in  the  egg  stage  by  spraying  with  kerosene  emulsion,  or 
the  resin  solution,  and  these  substances  are  to  be  used  unless 


Bulletin  iy — Insect  Pests  of  the  Garden , Farm  aiid  Orchard  45 


otherwise  stated.  With  all  species  of  aphididae , early  sprayings 
are  highly  desirable.  The  first  should  be  given  as  soon  as  the 
eggs  are  fairly  hatched  ; and  subsequent  sprayings  as  often  as 
necessary.  The  early  application  of  the  kerosene  emulsion  is 
particularly  necessary  in  such  species  that  form  galls  or  cause  the 
leaves  to  roll ; when  protected  within  the  galls  or  rolled-up 
leaves  it  is  almost  impossible  to  destroy  them  by  spraying. 


no.  21. — woolly  aphis  OF  THE  appee.  (, Schizoneura  lanigera). 

This  species  exists  in  two  forms,  one  of  which  attacks  the  roots, 
the  other  the  trunk  and  branches  of  the  apple.  The  great  ma- 
jority of  the  individuals  are  wingles,  but  winged  ones  also  occur 
especially  in  the  later 
broods  of  the  year.  The 
insect  derives  its  name 
from  a peculiar  white 
fluffy  substance  which 
exudes  from  their 
bodies,  making  them  ap- 
pear as  though  covered 
with  cotton,  and  render- 
ing them  very  conspicu- 
ous on  the  trees.  They  ^ 
are  especially  liable  to 
be  abundant  on  suckers 

from  tbe  bases  of  trees  *em,a-  All  enlarged  except  a. 
and  in  the  forks  of  the  branches.  The  cottony  covering  serves  to 
some  extent  as  a protection,  so  that  this  species  is  rather  more  dif- 
ficult to  kill  than  other  aphides.  ( Fig.  40) . 

The  root  form  is  the  more  injurious,  and  by  its  attacks,  peculiar 
corky  galls  are  formed  on  the  roots,  in  the  crevices  of  which  the 
lice  may  be  found.  These  galls  not  only  interfere  seriously  with 
the  functions  of  the  roots,  but  also  form  centers  of  decay,  and 
may  cause  the  death  of  the  tree. 

The  branch  form  weakens  the  tree  by  feeding  011  the  sap,  and 
not  infrequently  causes  the  bark  to  split  in  places  as  the  result  of 
its  attacks  ; it  never  forms  true  galls  like  the  root  form.  The  en- 
tire life  of  the  woolly  aphis  is  spent  on  the  apple,  the  winter  eggs 
being  laid  in  sheltered  crevices. 


46 


Washing-ton  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


It  must  be  understood  that  the  two  forms  differ  mainly  in  their 
mode  of  life.  The  presence  of  either  form  will  sooner  or  later 
give  rise  to  the  other,  and  badly  infested  trees  are  sure  to  be  at- 
tacked both  on  the  roots  and  on  the  branches. 

Special  Remedies. — This  pest  is  far  more  likely  to  be  introduced 
on  nursery  stock  than  in  any  other  way.  The  roots  of  purchased 
apple  trees  should  always  be  examined  for  the  galls  of  this  insect ; 
if  the  galls  are  large  or  numerous,  reject  the  trees.  If  they  are 
small  and  few,  they  may  be  completely  disinfected  by  dipping  the 
roots  in  kerosene  emulsion  or  in  hot  water  (i20°-i40°  Fahr.) 
for  a moment.  If  trees  in  the  orchard  are  attacked  by  the  root 
form,  the  soil  should  be  removed  as  much  as  possible  from  them 
and  the  roots  thoroughly  treated  with  kerosene  emulsion  or  with 
water  heated  nearly  to  the  boiling  point. 

Bisulphide  of  carbon  may  also  be  used  with  success  for  this 
form  of  the  insect. 

For  the  branch  form,  spray  with  kerosene  emulsion,  using 
rather  stronger  solutions  than  for  other  aphides. 

NO.  22 — GREEN  OR  APPLE  aphis.  ( Aphis  mali). 

Infesting  the  apple,  crab  apple,  and  mountain  ash.  This  is 
one  of  our  commonest  and  most  destructive  species,  frequently 
found  in  great  abundance  on  the  leaves,  especially  of  the  terminal 
twigs.  The  leaves  become  badly  distorted  and  together  with  the 
twigs  become  blackened  from  exudations  from  the  insects’  bodies. 

The  eggs  are  laid  usually 
in  large  numbers  near  the 
tips  of  branches,  especial^ 
around  the  winter  buds. 
They  are  elongate  oval, 
shining  black,  and  measure 
about  one-twelfth  of  an  inch 
in  length.  Shortly  after 
the  buds  burst  in  spring  the 
eggs  begin  to  hatch,  all 
producing  as  in  other 
species,  wingless  partheno- 
genetic  females.  Some  of  the  later  broods  consist  of  winged  in- 
dividuals, and  by  these  the  pest  is  spread  from  tree  to  tree.  Ex- 


b 


Bulletin  iy — Insect  Pests  of  the  Garden , Farm  and  Orchard  47 


cepting  for  a short  time  in  late  summer,  when  this  species  migrates 
to  wheat  and  other  grasses,  it  spends  its  whole  life  on  the  apple 
tree.  (Fig.  41). 

Begin  to  spray  for  this  species  as  soon  as  the  eggs  are  hatched. 
If  the  first  brood  is  largely  destroyed,  the  later  ones  are  not  so 
likely  to  be  numerous  enough  to  do  damage. 

no.  23. — cherry  aphis.  (Myzus  cerasi ) . 

This  is  a black  species  and  is  sometimes  found  on  the  cherry 
tree  in  enormous  numbers,  usually  on  the  leaves  only,  but  also 
attacking  the  tender  twigs. 

They  hatch  from  eggs  deposited  the  previous  autumn  on  the 
twigs,  and  for  a few  weeks  in  May  and  June  increase  very  rapidly . 
Usually  their  numerous  enemies  lessen  their  numbers  so  greatly, 
that  they  may  nearly  or  entirely  disappear  after  three  or  four 
weeks. 

In  August  they  appear  again,  but  usually  not  in  such  numbers 
as  earlier  in  the  season. 

As  yet  this  species  does  not  seem  to  be  abundant  in  the  state, 
but  we  have  received  specimens  from  nearly  every  fruit  growing 
section. 

no.  24. — grain  aphis.  ( Nectarophora  grayiaricC). 

A pale  green  species  infesting  wheat,  oats,  barley,  timothy,  rye, 
and  other  grasses,  but  especially  the 
first  two.  Appearing  in  late  June  and 
early  July  on  the  under  sides  of  the 
leaves,  but  later  more  abundant  on  the 
heads,  which  they  injure  considerable 
by  their  attacks.  The  attacks  of  their 
numerous  enemies  lessen  their  num- 
bers greatly,  and  after  the  middle  of 
August  it  is  difficult  to  find  specimens. 

The  eggs  and  winter  habits  of  this 
species  are  not  known.  (Figs.  42  and 
43-) 

The  grain  aphis  was  introduced  into 
this  state  last  year  (1894),  probably  from  California  via  the 


48 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


Fig.  43. -Grain 


Willamette  Valley,  and  soon  spread  throughout  the 
wheat  growing  sections  of  the  state.  It  is  a native  of 
Europe,  and  was  introduced  into  the  United  States 
about  thirty-five  years  ago,  reaching  California  in 
1886. 

There  is  no  practical  method  of  combatting  this  in- 
sect, which,  however,  is  seldom  or  never  necessary. 

NO.  25. — cabbage  aphis.  (Aphis  brassicae .) 

This  species  infests  the  cabbage,  cauliflower  and 
mustard.  It  usually  begins  to  appear  in  abundance 
about  the  time  the  cabbages  are  heading.  Their  bodies 
are  slightly  covered  with  a whitish  scurfy  substance, 
giving  them  a mealy  appearance. 

When  very  abundant  they  com- 
pletely cover  the  plants,  and  by 
crawling  in  between  the  leaves  of 
the  heads  render  many  of  them 
unfit  for  food.  The  entire  life  of 
this  species  is  spent  on  one  plant, 
the  winter  eggs  being  found  in  late 
fall  on  the  cabbage.  (Figs.  44 


Aphis  and  A 

leaf  of  wheat.  anQ  45  T 


Fig.  44. — Cabbage  Aphis; 
egg  laying  female. 


no.  26. — EEM  gall,  aphis.  (Schizoneura  americana .) 

Infesting  only  the  elm  and  found  usually  on  the  under  sides  of 
the  leaves,  which  become  thickened  and  reddish,  curling  more  or 
less  into  false  galls.  This  species  is  slightly  covered  with  a 
whitish  waxy  substance  and  secretes  a liquid,  which  may  be  found 
as  small  globules  in  the  gall.  Owing  to  the  protection  afforded 
by  the  curled  leaves,  this  insect  is  difficult  to  kill.  The  most  effi- 
cacious remedy  is  to  spray  with  kerosene  emulsion  as  soon  as  the 
lice  appear  and  before  the  leaves  curl . Of  course  if  this  first  brood 
is  destroyed  there  will  be  no  other. 

no.  27. — ash  leaf  aphis. — (Pemphigus  fraxinifolii.') 

This  species  lives  on  various  kinds  of  ash  and  causes  the  leaf- 
lets to  roll  up  into  false  galls  much  as  in  the  case  of  the  elm-gall 
aphis,  but  the  curled  leaflets  remain  green.  The  body  of  the  ash 


Bulletin  17 — Insect  Pests  of  the  Garden , Farm  and  Orchard  49 


leaf  aphis  is  covered  with  a flocculent  white  wax,  similar  to  the 
Woolly  aphis  of  the  apple.  An  abundance  of  liquid  is  excreted 
from  their  bodies,  which  accumulates  in  the  galls  in  small  globules. 

The  remarks  as  to  the  treatment  for  the  elm  gall  aphis  apply 
with  equal  force  to  this  species. 

no.  28. — ROSE  EEAF  hopper.  ( Typhlocyba  roses.) 

Diagnosis. — Attacking  the  leaves  of  rose  bushes  and  apple  trees 
on  the  under  side,  giving  the  leaves  a diseased,  white,  spotted  ap- 
pearance on  the  upper  side. 

Description  and  Life  History. — All  stages  of  this  insect  are 
found  on  its  food  plants.  The  adult  is  about  one-tenth  of  an  inch 
long,  with  a yellowish-white  body,  and  white  wings.  When  dis- 
turbed it  leaps  considerable  distances,  like  other  leaf-hoppers,  but 


its  powers  of  flight  are  not  well  developed.  The  larvae  are  whitish 
tender  creatures,  and  may  be  found  in  all  stages  of  growth  on  the 
same  leaf.  The  pupa,  here  called  a nymph,  is  an  active  creature, 
differing  from  the  larvae  mainly  in  possessing  rudimentary  wings. 
There  are  probably  several  broods  each  year. 

Remedies. — Spray  with  kerosene  emulsion,  using  an  under- 
sprayer. Where  it  is  undesirable  to  use  this  substance,  pyrethrum 
or  strong  tobacco  water  may  be  used  instead. 

Washington  Notes. — Common  in  the  counties  west  of  the  Cas- 
cades, where  it  seriously  injures  roses,  and  likewise  apple  trees. 

no.  29. — THE  IMPORTED  cabbage  worm.  ( Pieris  rapee) . 

Diagnosis. — Naked  caterpillars  feeding  on  cabbage  leaves.  The 
caterpillars  are  “ pale  green,  finely  dotted  with  black,  with  a yel- 


50 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


lowish  stripe  down  the  back,  and  a row  of  yellow  spots  along  each 
side.”  (Riley). 

Description  aiid  Life  History. — The  adult  is  one  of  the  common 
white  butterflies,  and  may  be  easily  recognized  by  the  accom- 
panying cuts  (Figs.  46,  47).  The  male  has  a single  round  black 
spot  near  the  center  of  each  fore  wing  ; the  female  has  two  such 
spots.  With  the  first  warm  days  in  spring  these  butterflies 


three  weeks.  They  now  change  to  the  pupae,  which  are  greenish, 
usually  on  the  under  side  of  the  leaves,  and  ten  days  later  emerge 
as  butterflies.  The  broods  are  continuous  through  the  season, 
the  number  varying  in  different  localities  and  with  the  length  of 
the  season. 

Remedies. — Before  the  cabbages  head,  treat  with  Paris  Green  or 
Tondon  Purple,  using  preferably  the  dry  method,  as  the  wet  spray 
does  not  cling  well  to  cabbage.  It  is  perfectly  safe  to  spray  with 
these  substances  up  to  two  weeks  before  using  the  cabbages.  If 
there  is  prejudice  against  using  the  Paris  Green  after  the  cab- 
bages are  headed,  resort  must  be  had  to  hand-picking,  and  as  the 
caterpillars  are  gregarious,  they  can  in  this  way  be  easily  con- 
trolled. 

We  have  had  very  little  success  with  such  recommended  reme- 
dies as  buhach,  hot  water,  or  kerosene  emulsion  for  this  insect. 

Washington  Notes. — This  insect  is  not  long  introduced  in  this 
state,  and  is  not  as  yet  abundant.  It  is  quite  sure  to  become  so 
unless  every  effort  is  made  to  destroy  it  whenever  found.  In  the 
east  it  is  the  worst  of  cabbage  pests. 

no.  30. — southern  cabbage  worm.  (Pieris  protodice'). 

Diagnosis. — Very  similar  to  the  preceding.  The  larvae  are 
greenish  blue  in  color,  with  four  yellowish  stripes  extending  the 


Fig.  46— Imported  Cabbage  Butter- 
fly, male. 


appear,  and  the  yellowish  oval 
eggs  are  deposited  singly  on 
the  under  surface  of  the  cab- 
bage leaves.  These  shortly 
after  hatch  into  larvae,  which 
not  only  feed  on  the  outer 
leaves,  but  also  burrow  into 
the  heads,  attaining  their  com- 
plete growth  in  from  two  to 


Bulletin  ij — Insect  Pests  of  the  Garden , Farm  and  Orchard  51 


whole  length  of  the  body,  and  covered  with  numerous  black  dots, 
each  bearing  a short  hair. 

Description  and  Life  History. — The  life  history  is  practically 
identical  to  that  of  the  preceding  insect.  The  adults  closely 
resemble  the  imported  cabbage  butterfly  but  the  females  differ 
remarkably  from  the  males  in  having  their  wings  very  much 
more  marked  with  black. 

Remedies. — Same  as  for  the  imported  cabbage  worm. 

Washington  Notes. — Native  throughout  the  state,  and  in  the 
warmer  valleys  of  Eastern  Washington,  much  more  abundant  and 
destructive  than  the  preceding  species  as  yet. 


fig.  47— Imported  Cabbage  Worm.  Larva,  pupa,  and  female  butterfly. 

the  cabbage  MAGGOT.  ( Anthomyia  brassicae ). 

Diagnosis. — Infesting  the  cabbage,  radish,  turnip,  stocks,  and 
several  other  plants  of  the  mustard  family ; small  cylindrical 
whitish  maggots,  one-third  of  an  inch  long,  burrowing  into  the 
roots  ; “ the  presence  of  the  pest,  where  it  occurs  in  considerable 
abundance,  is  indicated  by  a checking  of  the  growth  of  the  plant, 
a tendency  to  wilt  badly  under  a hot  sun,  and  a sickly  bluish  cast 
to  the  foliage.  ” (Slingerland). 

Description  and  Life  History. — The  adults  are  small,  black,  two- 
winged, flies,  in  a general  way  resembling  the  common  house-fly. 
They  appear  very  early  in  spring  and  deposit  their  eggs  in  crev- 
ices of  the  soil  close  to  their  food  plants.  In  a short  time  these 
hatch  into  maggots  which  at  once  attack  the  root,  in  which  they 
make  burrows  just  beneath  the  bark.  The  maggots  become 
fully  grown  in  three  to  four  weeks,  when  they  leave  the 


52 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


roots  and  an  inch  or  two  from  them  transform  to  pupae.  In 
transforming,  the  outer  skin  of  the  maggot  gradually  hardens  and 
becomes  separated  from  the  body,  forming  a puparium  which  con- 
tains the  delicate  pupa.  The  fully  mature  puparia  are  dark 
mahogany  in  color  and  oval  in  shape.  The  adults  emerge  from 
the  puparia  usually  in  from  15  to  20  days,  but  in  some  cases  this 
period  is  very  much  longer.  There  are  at  least  two  broods  each 
year  of  this  pest,  and  perhaps  three.  Usually  the  first  brood  in 
spring  does  the  most  serious  damage,  although  the  second  brood, 
wThich  appears  in  late  June  and  July  may  also  cause  considerable 
injury.  (Fig.  48). 

Remedies. — Slingerland,  who  has  studied  this  insect  exhaus- 
tively, finds  that  an  emulsion  of  carbolic  acid  is  the  best  insecti- 
cide for  this  pest.  The  emulsion  is  made  as  follows  : Dissolve 

one  pound  hard  soap  or 
one  quart  soft  soap  in 
one  gallon  of  boiling 
water,  into  which  pour 
one  pint  of  crude  car- 
bolic acid,  and  then  agi- 
tate for  a few  minutes 
when  the  whole  forms 

an  emulsion  which  re-  FlG-  48— Cabbage  Maggot,  a , larva  ; b , puparium  ; c,  fly. 

mains  stable  for  a long  time.  For  use,  dilute  one  part  of  the 
emulsion  with  thirty  parts  water. 

This  substance  acts  both  as  a preventive,  to  a certain  extent 
repelling  the  flies,  and  as  a direct  insecticide.  It  is  to  be  applied 
freely  to  the  roots  of  the  plants,  first  removing  the  soil  so  as  to 
expose  them.  The  first  application  should  be  made  a day  or  two 
after  setting  out  the  plants,  and  others  every  ten  or  fourteen  days 
until  the  first  of  June,  after  which  danger  from  the  first  brood  is 
over. 

no.  32 — THE  cabbage  PEUSIA.  ( Plusia  brassiccz). 

Diagnosis. — Attacking  cabbage,  cauliflower,  turnip  and  more 
rarely  tomato,  clover,  lettuce  and  several  other  plants  ; the  larvae 
(caterpillars),  are  about  one  inch  in  length,  semi-transparent  and 
pale  green  in  color,  with  several  paler  opaque  longitudinal  stripes. 


Bulletin  iy — Insect  Pests  of  the  Garden , Farm  and  Orchard  53 


The  head  is  quite  small,  with  the  body  gradually  enlarging  back- 
wards. Damage  similar  to  that  of  the  imported  cabbage  butterfly. 

Descriptio7i  a7id  Life  History. — The  adult  insect  is  a night-fly- 
ing moth,  expanding  about  an  inch  and  a half.  The  front  wings 
are  dark  grayish  or  brownish,  marked  by  several  broken  lines  of 
pale  yellow.  Near  the  center  of  each  is  a “U”  shaped  mark 
and  an  oval  dot,  both 
bright  silver  in  color. 

The  hind  wings  are 
smoky  gray,  paler  to- 
wards the  base.  The 
eggs  are  laid  on  the  cab- 
bage plants  and  in  a 
short  time  hatch  into  the 
larvae,  which  begin  to 
feed  at  once,  eating  holes 
in  the  leaves.  If  very 
numerous  they  will  eat 
all  but  the  thick  ribs  of 
the  leaves.  When  ma- 
ture, the  larva  spins  a 
thin  cocoon  of  silk,  sometimes  between  the  leaves,  but  more  often 
in  a better  sheltered  situation.  In  this  cocoon  the  larva  trans- 
forms into  a pupa  or  chrysalis,  and  after  about  ten  days  emerges 
again  as  a perfect  moth.  There  are  probably  but  two  broods  a 
year  in  this  state.  (Fig.  49). 

Remedies. — Same  as  for  the  Imported  Cabbage  Butterfly. 
Washington  Notes. — Quite  rare  in  the  western  part  of  the  state, 
and  not  yet  reported  from  Eastern  Washington.  It  is  sure  to  be- 
come more  abundant  and  destructive  unless  vigorously  combatted. 

NO.  33 — THK  zebra  CATERPILLAR.  ( Mamestra  pida'). 

Diagnosis. — Caterpillars  feeding  on  the  leaves  of  cabbage,  and 
easily  distinguished  from  all  other  larvae  feeding  on  this  plant,  by 
the  coal  black  and  brilliant  yellow  markings  on  their  bodies. 

Description  a7id  Life  History. — The  adult  insect  is  a night  flying 
moth,  spreading  one  and  one-half  inches.  The  upper  wings  are 
dull  brownish-purple  in  color,  darker  toward  the  front  margin. 


54 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


Near  the  center  of  each  is  a large  grayish  spot,  peculiarly  shaped, 
and  close  to  it,  but  nearer  the  body  two  other  smaller  spots,  one 
oval,  the  other  elongate  in  shape.  The  under  wings  are  white  or 
nearly  so.  Owing  to  its  habits,  the  moth  is  seldom  seen.  They 
first  appear  early  in  May,  and  the  small  round  eggs  are  laid  in 
clusters  on  the  leaves,  and  soon  hatch  into  larvae.  These  at  first 
are  dull  in  color  and  feed  in  groups ; as  they  grow  older  they  scat- 
ter. The  full-grown  larva  is  about  two  inches  in  length,  the 
ground  color  of  the  body  being  shining  black.  On  each  side  are 
two  bright  yellow  stripes  running  the  whole  length  of  the  body, 
and  connected  together  by  numerous  fine  lines  of  the  same  color. 
The  under  side  of  the  body  is  pinkish  yellow.  The  caterpillars 
now  burrow  into  the  ground  to  a depth  of  two  inches,  construct- 
ing there  a frail  cocoon  of  particles  of  earth  held  together  by 
silken  threads,  and  in  these  they  change  to  pupae,  emerging  about 
two  weeks  later  as  moths.  These  lay  eggs  and  a second  brood  of 
the  larvae  appears  in  August  and  September,  which  transform 
into  pupae  and  pass  the  winter  in  that  condition. 

Remedies. — The  larvae  are  easily  gathered  and  destroyed  when 
young,  as  they  then  feed  in  flocks.  If  they  are  abundant  and 
scattered,  treat  the  same  as  for  Imported  Cabbage  Worm. 

Washington  Notes. — This  species  is  a new  comer  to  the  state. 
We  received  numerous  specimens  of  the  second  brood  of  larvae 
from  Spokane  county  in  August,  1894.  These  transformed  into 
pupae  at  various  dates  during  September,  and  the  adult  moths 
emerged  therefrom  late  in  April  and  early  in  May,  1895.  Larvae 
were  also  seen  in  Yakima  county  in  September,  1894.  Evidently 
the  insect  is  yet  rare  in  the  state,  but  it  should  be  destroyed  wher- 
ever found,  lest  it  become  abundant. 

no.  34. — THE  CABBAGE  PEUTELEA.  (■. Plutella  cruciferarum) . 

Diagnosis. — Small,  slender  green  larvae,  varying  from  one- 
fourth  to  three-fourths  of  an  inch  in  length,  on  both  sides  of  cab- 
bage leaves  ; leaves  punctured  completely  through,  or  all  but  the 
skin,  with  numerous  rather  small  round  holes. 

Description  aiid  Life  History. — The  adult  insect  is  a small, 
narrow- winged  moth,  spreading  about  one-half  an  inch.  The 
fore  wings  are  grayish -brown  in  color,  with  a rather  broad  white 
line  on  the  hinder  margin.  There  are  three  angles  extending 


Bulletin  iy — Insect  Pests  of  the  Garden , Farm  and  Orchard  55 


from  the  white  line  into  the  grayish,  so  that,  when  the  wings  are 
closed,  the  white  forms  three  diamond-shaped  spots.  The  under 
wings  are  dark  leaden  gray  in  color.  The  minute  yellowish  eggs 
are  laid  by  the  moth  on  the  cabbage  leaves,  either  singly  or  in 
groups  of  three  or  four.  The  eggs  hatch  in  a few  days  into 
minute  greenish  larvae,  which  at  once  begin  to  eat  into  the  leaf. 
The  larvae  shed  their  skins  five  times  and  attain  their  full  growth 

in  two  weeks,  being  then 
three-fourths  of  an  inch 
long.  They  are  slender, 
green  in  color,  and  wrig- 
gle very  actively  when 
disturbed . 

When  fully  grown  the 
larvae  spin  very  delicate, 
gauzy  cocoons,  usually 
on  the  under  side  of  the 
leaves,  and  transform 
therein  into  pupae.  I11  seven  or  eight  days  the  adult  insects 
emerge  therefrom.  The  number  of  annual  broods  is  difficult  to 
ascertain,  but  is  said  to  be  two  as  a rule.  During  July  and 
August  all  stages  of  the  insect  may  be  found,  so  that  the  distinc- 
tion of  the  broods  is  not  at  all  well  marked.  The  winter  habits 
of  the  insect  are  not  known,  but  it  is  probable  that  it  hibernates  in 
the  chrysalis  or  pupa  stage.  (Fig.  50). 

Remedies . — Same  as  for  Imported  Cabbage  Worm. 

Washington  Notes. — Common  throughout  the  state,  and 
annually  does  considerable  damage  ; this  was  especially  true  in 
1893.  In  that  year  we  found  about  one-third  of  all  the  larvae 
were  destsoyed  by  three  ichneumon  parasites,  namely  *Herpesto- 
nus  plutellce , Ashm;  * Limit  eria  tiliator , Cr.y  and  *Smicra  tor- 
vina,  Cr. 

A number  of  other  parasites  have  been  recorded  for  this  insect, 
and  doubtless  prevent  to  a great  extent  the  increase  of  the  pest. 

NO  35. — THE  SMAEE-PUNCTURED  FL,EA  BEETLE. 

(. Psylliodes  punctulata). 

Diagnosis. — Very  small  shining-black  oval  beetles  eating  pits  in 


Fig.  50 — Cabbage  Plutella  ; a,  larva  ; d , pupa  ; 
e , cocoon  ; f,  moth,  side  view  ; all  enlarged. 


*Determined  by  W.  H.  Ashmead. 


56 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


both  sides  of  the  leaves  of  turnips,  radishes,  sugar  beets,  potatoes, 
mustard,  pigweed,  tumble-weed  and  many  other  plants.  When 
disturbed  they  leap  vigorously  like  fleas,  whence  their  name. 

Description  and  Life  history. — The  beetles  hibernate  over 
winter  under  stones  and  appear  flying  about  with  the  first  warm 
days  of  spring.  At  this  time  they  do  their  most  serious  damage 
by  eating  all  the  green  pulp  from  the  leaves  of  seedling  plants, 
sometimes  utterly  destroying  a crop.  They  also  seriously  injure 
the  plants  throughout  the  season  by  their  attacks.  The  larval 
history  of  this  species  is  not  yet  ascertained,  but  it  is  probable 
that  the  eggs  are  laid  near  the  roots  of  the  plant,  and  that  the 
larvae  feed  on  the  roots,  as  in  other  insects  of  this  family. 

Remedies. — Owing  to  the  fact  that  this  insect  feeds  on  so  many 
plants  it  is  difficult  to  centend  with.  We  have  had  excellent  re- 
sults using  Paris  Green  liberally.  It  is  especially  necessary  to 
protect  young  plants,  and  these  should  be  treated  as  soon  as  the 
attacks  of  the  beetle  are  noticed.  Either  the  dry  or  wet  method 
of  applying  the  insecticide  may  be  used. 

Washington  Notes. — This  is  by  far  the  most  destructive  flea- 
beetle  in  the  state,  and  seems  not  to  occur  west  of  the  Cascade 
mountains.  Besides  this  species  more  or  less  damage  is  done  by 
others,  viz,  Haltica  ignita,  Phyllotreta  pusilla,  Phyllotreta  decipiens , 
and  Phyllotreta  oregone?isis. 

NO.  36. — THE  STRAWBERRY  EEAF-ROIXER. 

(. Phoxopteris  comptana'). 

Diagnosis. — Attacking  the  strawberry.  Small  greenish  cater- 
pillars which  fold  the  leaflets  together  or  roll  them  into  tubes, 
fastening  them  by  silken  threads,  and  feeding  on  their  substance. 

Descriptio7i  a7id  Life  History. — These  little  caterpillars  hatch 
from  the  eggs  about  the  time  the  plants  are  in  bloom,  and  at  once 
make  their  presence  known  by  their  leaf-rolling  habits.  They 
become  fully  grown  in  June  and  pupate  in  their  nests,  emerging 
shortly  afterwards  as  a beautiful  little  moth,  measuring  less 
than  half  an  inch  from  tip  to  tip  of  wings.  The  fore  wings  are 
a bright  mahogany  color,  streaked  diagonally  with  whitish  lines. 
Near  the  posterior  outer  corner  is  a small  eye-like  spot.  The 
hind  wings  are  dirty  gray.  (Fig.  53). 


Bulletin  17 — Insect  Pests  of  the  Garden,  Farm  and  Orchard  57 


A second  brood  of  larvae  appears  in  August  and  becomes  ma- 
ture in  September.  This  brood  passes  the  winter  in  the  pupa 
stage. 

Remedies. — Two  methods  are  used  with  success.  The  better 
method  is  to  mow  the  field  after  the  crop  is  gathered,  and  after 
letting  it  lie  a day  or  two,  burn  it  over.  By  scattering  a little 
straw  on  the  field,  the  burning  will  be  more  thorough.  The 
plants  will  quickly  recover  and  send  up  new  leaves. 

The  second  brood  may  be  destroyed  by  spraying  the  plants  in 
August  with  arsenites.  The  arsenicals  must  not  be  used  before 
the  crop  is  gathered. 

Washington  Notes. — Abundant  throughout  the  state,  and  injur- 
ing the  strawberry  plants  more  than  any  other  insect. 


Fig.  53. — Strawberry  Leaf-roller,  a,  larva,  nat- 
ural size  ; b,  head  and  four  segments  of  larva 
enlarged  ; d,  the  terminal  segment ; c,  imago, 
four  times  natural  size. 


MACHINES  FOR  APPLYING  INSECTICIDES. 


Notwithstanding  that  spraying  against  insects  and  fungous  dis- 
eases is  a comparatively  new  thing,  the  spray  pump  is  today  in- 
dispensible  in  the  orchard  and  on  the  farm.  The  successful 
farmer  of  today  must  spray;  indeed  the  fact  of  his  spraying  may 
mean  the  difference  between  success  and  failure.  Such  sorry 
devices  as  a broom  or  a watering  can  for  applying  insecticides 
should  be  relegated  to  rest.  Spraying  is  a necessity  that  pays 
well  if  properly  done  ; and  to  do  it  well  and  economically  requires 
special  machines.  Without  these  it  is  almost  useless  to  attempt 
to  fight  insects  successfully.  In  spraying  machinery  as  in  every- 
thing else,  the  good  only  is  cheap.  A good  machine  pays  for 
itself  many  times  in  the  rapidity  and  economy  with  which  it  does 


58 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


its  work  ; a poor  one  is  a constant  source  of  trouble,  and  in  the 
end  is  far  more  expensive  than  the  good. 

It  cannot  by  any  means  be  said  that  spraying  machineryjhas 
reached  its  perfection,  still  experience  has  demonstrated  that 
some  forms  of  pumps  and  nozzles  are  good,  others  worthless.  No 
one  pump  can  do  all  kinds  of  work  equally  well,  nor  can  it  be 
expected  to. 


Fig-  54- 


Already  there  are  many  machines  on  the  market  designed  for 
spraying  certain  crops  only,  either  by  hand,  horse  or  steam  power. 
For  information  regarding  any  of  these  we  refer  the  reader  to  the 
various  manufacturers. 

SPRAY  pumps. 

The  first  requisite  for  good  spraying  is  a good  pump.  Although 


Bulletin  17 — Insect  Pests  of  the  Garden , Farm  and  Orchard  59 


there  are  several  distinct  types  on  the  market,  the  suction  or 
force  pumps  are  the  best  for  general  use.  If  the  pump  is  to  be 
used  at  all  for  spraying  Bordeaux  mixture  or  other  fugicides,  it 
must  be  made  of  copper  or  brass,  or  at  least  lined  with  those 
metals.  Bordeaux  mixture  and  other  copper  solutions  rapidly 
corrode  iron.  Most  of  the  pumps  now  on  the  market  have  their 
working  parts  thus  protected  against  corrosion. 

It  is  also  important  that  the  pump  be  so  constructed  that  the 


Fig.  55-  Fig.  56. 


working  parts  are  easily  accessible.  Not  infrequently  it  becomes 
necessary  to  take  the  pump  apart  to  clean  or  oil  it  or  to  renew 
the  valves  and  packing. 

We  here  illustrate  a number  of  forms  intended  for  general  use, 
but  more  particularly  in  the  orchard.  Nearly  all  of  these  pumps 
have  been  actually  tested  here  at  the  Experiment  Station. 

Fig.  54  represents  a pump  made  by  the  Goulds  Manufacturing 
Co.  It  is  simple  in  device,  well  made,  and  can  easily  be  taken 
apart  for  cleaning.  It  works  easily,  and  being  provided  with  an 


6o 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


air  chamber  does  not  demand  continuous  pumping.  It  is  sold  for 
$9.50  without  the  barrel. 

Fig.  55  is  a pump  made  b3^  F.  E.  Myers  & Bro.  Price  $12,  in- 
cluding hose  and  nozzle.  It  is  a powerful,  well  constructed  pump, 
and  has  a small  return  pipe  so  arranged  that  the  spraying  liquid 
is  kept  in  constant  agitation. 

Most  of  the  eastern  manufacturers  of  spraying  machinery  make 


Fig-  57- 


Bulletin  ij — Insect  Pests  of  the  Garden , Farm  and  Orchard  61 


pumps  similar  to  these,  and  for  spraying  orchards  they  are  ex- 
cellent. 

Fig.  56  is  the  “ Bean  ” Spray  Pump,  made  by  the  Bean  Spray 
Pump  Co.,  Los  Gatos,  Cal.  This  is  perhaps  more  used  in  this 
state  than  any  other  spray  pump.  Its  principal  feature  is  the 


Fig.  59- 

very  large  air  chamber,  provided  with  a pressure  gauge.  When 
the  air  chamber  is  heavily  charged,  the  pump  will  spray  several 
minutes  without  pumping.  The  company  makes  eight  sizes  of 
this  pump,  ranging  in  price  from  $16  to  $61. 

Fig.  57  is  a horizontal  acting  pump  made  by  W.  & B.  Douglas, 
designed  for  use  wherever  it  is  desired  to  throw  large  quantities 


62 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


of  spraying  solution.  It  varies  in  price  from  $25  to  $200,  accord- 
ing to  size  and  construction. 

Fig.  58  is  the  “Success”  brass  spray  pump,  made  by  the 
Deming  Company;  price,  $6.00.  This  is  a most  excellent  little 
pump  designed  to  be  used  with  a bucket.  For  light  work  in 
spraying  as  in  gardens,  we  can  recommend  it  highly. 

Besides  suction  pumps,  there  are  several  other  types  of  spray 
on  the  market.  We  illustrate  one  in  Fig.  59,  the  “Watch” 
spraying  pump,  made  by  the  Rumsey  Company;  price,  $10  to 
$14.  The  principle  of  these  pumps  is  similar  to  that  of  rotary 
pumps.  Thej^  work  easily  and  do  excellent  work  when  new. 
The  working  parts  however,  are  made  entirely  of  metal  and  in 
time  become  worn  by  the  gritty  spraying  liquids  ; when  thus 
worn  the  pumps  are  almost  useless. 

KNAPSACK  SPRAYERS. 

For  spraying  low  growing  plants,  vines  or  bushes  in  close  rows, 
the  Knapsack  sprayer  is  indispensible.  We  illustrate  in  Fig.  60, 
“ The  Garfield”  sprayer  made  by  the  Field  Force  Pump  Com- 
pany; price,  $12.  Similar  forms  are  made  by  nearly  all  manu- 
facturers. In  purchasing  be  careful  to  get  a pump  in  which  the 
discharge  pipe  enters  the  top  of  the  tank.  Where  the  discharge 
pipe  leaves  the  bottom  of  the  tank  it  is  much  more  apt  to  become 
clogged.  The  Knapsack  sprayers  are  especially  useful  in  spray- 
ing low  growing  crops,  grapes  and  other  small  fruits. 

MACHINES  FOR  APPLYING  DRY  INSECTICIDES. 

In  Fig.  61  we  illustrate  the  Leggett  Powder  Gun,  a machine 
worked  by  hand  and  used  to  distribute  Paris  Green,  hellebore 
and  similar  insecticides  whenever  it  becomes  desirable  to  apply 
these  substances  in  a dry  form.  It  is  simple  in  construction  and 
well  adapted  to  the  purpose  for  which  it  is  intended.  The  appli- 
cation of  insecticides  in  a dry  state  is  however,  not  so  economical 
as  in  the  form  of  a spray,  so  we  do  not  recommend  it  except  in 
special  cases,  notably  for  cabbage  insects.  It  is  claimed  how- 
ever, that  one  pound  of  Paris  Green  used  pure  with  this  instru- 
ment will  treat  an  acre  of  potatoes.  The  machine  is  listed  at 
$7.00. 


|T  Bulletin  17 — Bisect  Pests  of  the  Garden , Farm  and  Orchard  63 


Fig.  61. 


Fig.  62. 


64 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


NOZZLKS. 


Not  less  important  than  the  spray  pump  is  the  nozzle  to  be 
used  in  applying  insecticides.  To  be  thoroughly  efficient  nozzles 
must  throw  a fine  mist-like  spray,  and  be  so  constructd  as  to  be 
quickly  and  easily  cleaned  if  they  become  clogged.  The  nozzle 
that  best  answers  these  requirements  is  the  “Vermorel.”  Being 
unpatented,  it  is  made  in  some  form  by  nearly  all  manufacturers 
of  spraying  machinery.  The  best  form  is  one  that  is  completely 
separable  into  its  constituent  parts,  and  that  has  a spring  to 


retract  the  degorging  pin.  In  Fig.  62  we  illustrate  a Vermorel 
made  by  the  Field  Force  Pump  Company;  price,  $1.25. 

The  “Cyclone”  nozzle  is  similar  to  the  Vermorel,  but  having 
no  degorging  pin,  is  not  so  quickly  cleaned.  Some  forms  of  it 
have  the  opening  in  the  end,  others  in  the  side.  The  latter  form 
is  very  useful  for  spraying  the  under  side  of  leaves,  especially  ot 
low  plants.  We  illustrate  the  Bean  “Cyclone,”  Fig.  63. 

A very  excellent  nozzle  is  the  “ Climax,”  made  by  the  Nixon 
Nozzle  and  Machine  Co.,  and  shown  in  Fig.  64.  Price  $1.00. 


Bulletin  ij — Insect  Pests  of  the  Garden , Farm  and  Orchard  65 


In  this  the  spray  is  formed  by  dashing  the  water  against  a fine 
wire  screen.  This  nozzle  throws  a very  fine  spray,  and  for  clear 
liquids  and  the  arsenicals  is  unsurpassed.  With  heavy  spraying 
mixtures,  however,  it  is  apt  to  become  clogged. 

Fig.  65  represents  the  “ Masson  ” nozzle,  made  by  the  Gould’s 
Manufacturing  Co.  Price  $1.00.  This  is  so  constructed  that 
either  a coarse  or  fine  spray  can  be  thrown,  the  change  being  made 
by  simply  turning  a thumb-screw.  The  water  is  changed  into  a 
spray  by  being  dashed  against  a thin  deflected  edge.  In  many 
respects  this  nozzle  is  excellent,  but  with  a careless  worker,  is  not 
so  economical  as  other  forms. 


Fig-  67.  Fig.  64. 


The  “Bordeaux”  nozzle,  Fig.  66,  is  made  by  F.  E.  Myers  & 
Bro.  Price  $1.50.  In  general  this  nozzle  is  similar  to  the  pre- 
ceding. Both  are  very  well  adapted  for  spraying  heavy  liquids, 
like  Bordeaux  mixture  or  the  sulphur,  lime  and  salt  wash. 

The  “ New  Bean  ” nozzle,  Fig  67,  is  made  by  the  Bean  Spray 
Pump  Co.  Price  $1.00.  The  size  of  the  spray  is  regulated  here 
by  a thumb-screw,  and  the  orifice  protected  by  pieces  of  rubber. 
It  is  especially  designed  for  the  sulphur,  lime  and  salt  wash. 

Besides  the  above,  there  are  many  other  new  nozzles  on  the 
market,  some  of  which  may  prove  valuable.  The  trouble  with 
most  of  them  is  the  difficulty  of  cleaning  them  when  they  become 
clogged,  and  this  is  a point  of  no  small  importance  in  spraying. 


66 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


BAMBOO  EXTENSION  RODS. 

For  spraying  in  the  tops  and  center  of  tall  tree  this  is  a very 
useful  device.  It  consists  simply  of  a light  bamboo  pole  io  or  12 
feet  long,  through  which  runs  a light  iron  pipe.  The  hose  can 
be  coupled  at  one  end,  and  a nozzle  placed  at  the  other.  By  its 
use  the  operator  can  spray  the  interior  of  trees  with  ease  and 
thoroughness,  and  economy  of  material. 

CARE  OF  SPRAYING  MACHINERY. 

When  through  using,  the  hose  and  nozzle  should  be  cleaned  by 
pumping  clear  water  through  them.  The  pump  should  be  taken 
apart  and  the  valves  and  bearings  cleaned  and  oiled  ; otherwise 
the  former  will  get  hard  and  dry,  and  as  a consequence  the  pump 
will  do  poor  work. 

MANUFACTURERS  OF  SPRAYING  MACHINERY. 

The  following  reliable  firms  manufacture  spraying  apparatus, 
and  will  send  catalogues  on  application  : 

The  Field  Force  Pump  Co.,  Dockport,  N.  Y. 

The  Nixon  Nozzle  and  Machine  Co.,  Dayton,  Ohio. 

William  Stahl,  Quincy,  111. 

The  Gould’s  Manufacturing  Co.,  Seneca  Falls,  N.  Y. 

W.  & B.  Douglas,  Middletown,  Conn. 

Rumsey  & Co.,  Seneca  Falls,  N.  Y. 

Deming  Co.,  Salem,  Ohio. 

F.  K.  Myers  & Bro.,  Ashland,  Ohio. 

William  Boekel  & Co.,  518  Vine  street,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

The  Bean  Spray  Pump  Co.,  Dos  Gatos,  Cal. 


j/;  /t?£. 


WASHINGTON  STATE  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE  AND 
SCHOOL  OF  SCIENCE 


Experiment  Station 

PULLMAN,  WASHINGTON 


Bulletin  18 


DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE 

THE  BABCOCK  MILK  TEST 

By  W.  J.  Spillman 


AUGUST,  1895. 


All  bulletins  of  this  station  are  sent  free  to  citizens  of  the  state  on 
application  to  the  Director. 


THE  CALVERT  COMPANY,  716  FRONT  ST,,  SEATTLE. 


THE  AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


BOARD  OF  CONTROL. 


T.  R.  TannatT,  President , Farmington 

J.  W.  Stearns,  Treasurer , Tekoa 

E.  S.  Ingraham,  Vice  President , Seattle 

H.  S.  Beandford, Walla  Walla 

J.  W.  Arrasmith, Colfax 

STATION  STAFF. 

Enoch  A.  Bryan, Director 

W.  J.  Spieeman, Agriculturist 

C.  V.  Piper, Botanist  and  Entomologist 

Eeton  Fuemer,  Chemist 

John  A.  Baemer, Horticulturist 

Cearence  C.  Feetcher, Assistant  Chemist 


THE  BABCOCK  MILK  TEST. 


W.  J.  Spitlman. 

The  general  adoption  of  the  Babcock  milk  test  as  the  basis  of 
payment  for  milk  at  creameries  in  this  state,  and  the  very  great 
value  of  this  test  to  dairy  farmers  who  are  trying  to  improve  their 
herds,  renders  it  desirable  that  a bulletin  of  popular  information 
on  the  subject  should  be  placed  in  the  hands  of  those  interested. 
Perhaps  no  other  discovery  in  the  line  of  dairying  has  ever  been 
of  such  importance  to  the  industry  as  this.  It  is,  in  short  a 
method  of  quickly  and  easily  determining  the  per  cent,  of  butter- 
fat  in  milk,  thus  giving  an  index  to  the  amount  of  butter  that 
■can  be  made  from  the  milk.  The  per  cent,  of  fat  is  also  a very  ac- 
curate index  to  the  amount  of  cheese  that  milk  will  make,  pro- 
vided the  milk  is  ordinary  unskimmed  milk.  This  test  therefore 
enables  the  creamery  man  to  pay  each  patron  just  what  his  milk 
is  worth,  which  is  desirable  from  every  standpoint.  It  also  enables 
a farmer  who  sells  milk,  or  any  of  the  products  of  milk,  to  ascer- 
tain which  of  his  cows  are  the  poorest,  and  thus  point  out  the 
road  to  improvement  of  his  herd. 

Not  Patented. 

When  the  government  established  the  state  experiment  stations 
it  did  the  wisest  thing  any  government  ever  did.  It  is  due  to  the 
fact  that  this  milk  test  was  invented  by  a station  worker,  that  it 
has  not  been  patented. 

The  principle  was  discovered  by  Dr.  S.  M.  Babcock,  of  the 
Wisconsin  experiment  station,  and  was  published  by  him  in  1890. 
Since  that  time  it  has  been  almost  universally  adopted,  and  has 
made  Dr.  Babcock’s  name  a household  word  in  every  dairy  dis- 
trict in  this  country. 

There  are  other  milk  tests,  but  their  inventors,  considering 
money  a greater  boon  than  the  gratitude  of  their  fellow-men,  have 
patented  them,  and  the  apparatus  for  making  them  is  therefore 
much  more  expensive  than  for  the  Babcock  test. 


4 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


THE  BABCOCK  MACHINE  ON  THE  FARM. 


Nature  of  the  Process. — The  test  consists  in  taking  a 
small  quantity  of  milk  (17.6  cubic  centimeters),  and  adding  to 
it  the  same  volume  of  sulphuric  acid.  The  acid  destroys  every- 
thing in  the  milk  that  would  rise  to  the  top  with  the  fat,  so  that 
when  the  fat  does  rise  it  is  pure,  and  its  volume  can  be  measured 
in  the  neck  of  the  bottle.  The  bottle  in  which  the  test  is  made  is 
of  a special  pattern  ; the  neck  is  long  and  .slender  (see  fig.  1 , A) , 
and  a graduated  scale  is  marked  on  the  neck.  The  divisions  of 
this  scale  are  such  that  the  length  of  the  column  of  fat  in  the  bot- 
tle neck,  measured  by  this  scale,  is  the  per  cent,  of  fat  in  the 
milk.  The  rising  of  the  fat  is  hastened  by  putting  the  bottle  in 
a centrifugal  machine  which  revolves  rapidly  for  about  five  min- 
utes. 

How  to  Get  a Fair  Sample  of  Milk  to  Test. — The  fat 
in  milk  is  in  very  small,  round  drops.  These  globules  of  fat  are 
lighter  than  the  liquid  composing  the  bulk  of  the  milk,  and  like 
cork,  they  tend  to  rise  to  the  surface.  Hence  when  milk  stands, 
even  for  a few  minutes,  the  upper  layers  become  richer  in  fat  than 
the  lower.  It  is  therefore  necessary  to  stir  a vessel  of  milk 
thoroughly  in  order  to  be  able  to  dip  out  a representative  sample 
for  testing.  It  will  not  do  at  all  to  stir  simply  with  a spoon  or 
ladle.  This  does  not  mix  the  top  and  bottom  milk  properly. 
The  milk  may  be  [properly  mixed  by  pouring  it  a time  or  two 
from  one  vessel  to  another,  or  by  dipping  out  a large  cup  full  and 
pouring  back,  repeating  the  process  four  or  five  times,  and  dip- 
ping out  the  sample  immediately  afterwards. 

An  ounce  of  milk  is  enough  to  take  for  making  one  test  (17.6 
cubic  centimeters  is  about  two-thirds  of  an  ounce).  When  the 
sample  is  taken  to  the  machine  for  testing,  the  exact  amount, 
17.6  cubic  centimeters,  is  measured  out  from  it. 

In  getting  a sample  of  a single  cow’s  milk,  it  must  be  remem- 
bered that  cream  rises  on  milk  in  the  udder  about  the  same  as  in 
a pan.  It  would  be  just  the  same  if  the  cow  stood  perfectly  still. 
In  milking,  therefore,  the  first  milk  is  poor  in  fat,  the  last  is  very 
rich.  To  calculate  the  butter  fat  a cow  gives  at  a milking  it  is 
absolutely  necessary  to  have  an  average  sample  of  the  milk,  and 


Bulletin  18 — The  Babcock  Milk  Test 


5 


this  can  be  had  only  by  taking  all  the  milk,  first  as  well  as  last, 
and  thoroughly  mixing  it. 

There  is  an  apparatus  called  a “ milk  thief,”  that  will  get  an 
average  sample  of  the  milk  in  a vessel,  whether  the  milk  is 
thoroughly  mixed  or  not.  It  does  so  by  taking  a column  of  milk 
extending  from  bottom  to  top.  It  thus  gets  a portion  of  the 
poor  milk  at  the  bottom  and  the  rich  milk  at  the  top. 

It  is  practically  impossible  to  thoroughly  mix  curdled  or  par- 
tially churned  milk  ; hence  milk  should  be  tested  before  it  gets  in 
either  condition. 

Milk  may  be  kept  from  curdling  by  adding  to  it  a small  amount 
of  powdered  potassium  bi-chromate,  as  explained  under  direc- 
tions for  making  the  composite  test.  (See  page  18) . This  subs- 
tance is  poison,  and  is,  of  course,  added  only  to  the  sample  to  be 
kept  till  convenient  to  test  it. 

Samples  are  kept  in  bottles,  or  any  convenient  vessels  till  tested. 
The  sample  should  never  completely  fill  the  vessel  it  is  kept  in, 
as  it  must  be  shaken  to  mix  the  milk  before  testing.  (Care  must 
be  exercised  to  avoid  churning  the  sample) . 

Description  of  Apparatus  and  Directions  for  Making 
the  Test. — The  samples  of  milk  may  be  kept  in  any  convenient 
vessel,  such  as  the  ordinary  prescription  bottles  to  be  found  in 
every  household.  The  sample  should  not  fill  the  vessel  more 
than  half  full,  as  it  must  be  shaken  before  measuring  out  the 
portion  for  the  test.  But  since  the  milk  to  be  placed  in  the  test 
bottle  is  measured  by  drawing  it  up  into  a pipette  (see  fig.  i,  B) 
the  vessel  the  sample  is  in  must  be  of  such  form  that  the  end  of 
the  pipette  can  be  introduced  into  it.  Samples  in  small  necked 
bottles  may  be  poured  out  into  a tin  cup  as  wanted. 

Miek  Pipette. — Fig.  i,  B.  When  this  is  full  to  the  mark  on 
the  neck  it  holds  just  17.6  c.  c.  (cubic  centimeters).  To  fill  it 
place  the  lower  end  in  the  milk,  take  the  upper  end  in  the  mouth 
and  draw  till  the  milk  rises  about  half  way  between  the  mark  on 
the  neck  and  the  upper  end  ; then  quickly  place  the  end  of  the 
fore  finger  over  the  top  end.  A little  practice  will  enable  one  to 
do  this  quite  successfully.  By  allowing  air  to  enter  slowly  3^011 
can  let  the  milk  slowly  run  out  till  it  falls  to  the  level  of  the  mark 
on  the  neck  of  the  pipette.  Then  holding  the  finger  firmly  on 
the  upper  end,  place  the  lower  end  in  the  neck  of  the  test  bottle, 


6 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


(fig.  i , A) , and  let  the  milk  run  into  it.  It  is  supposed  that 
about  one-tenth  of  a c.  c.  of  milk  will  adhere  to  the  §ides  of  the 
pipette,  so  that  the  amount  put  in  the  test  bottle  is  17.5  c.  c.,  the 
same  as  the  volume  of  the  acid. 


Fig.  1— A,  test  bottle  ; B,  milk  pepette  ; C,  acid  measure  ; D,  bottle  for  milk  sample. 


Having  measured  all  the  samples  into  the  test  bottles,  the  next 
thing  is  to  add  the  sulphuric  acid.  An  even  number  of  samples 


Bulletin  18 — The  Babcock  Milk  Tesl 


7 


should  be  taken,  so  that  the  machine  will  not  be  thrown  out  of 
balance.  Two  tests  of  the  same  sample  may  be  taken  if  needed. 

Acid  Measure. — Fig.  i,  C.  The  acid  is  poured  directly  into 
this  ; when  full  to  the  mark  near  the  top  it  holds  17.5  c.  c.,  the 
amount  for  one  test.  Sulphuric  acid  is  very  corroding,  and  if  by 
accident  it  gets  on  one’s  hands  or  clothing,  wash  off  at  once  with 
plenty  of  cold  water.  A little  ammonia  applied  afterwards  will 
neutralize  what  acid  might  remain,  but  is  not  needed  except 
where  considerable  acid  has  been  spilled,  or  where  the  acid  has 
remained  long  enough  to  make  discoloration  of  clothing.  The 
acid  is  now  to  be  added  to  the  milk  in  the  test  bottle.  In  doing 
this,  hold  the  test  bottle  (fig.  1,  A)  obliquely,  so  that  the  acid 
will  run  down  one  side  of  the  neck.  The  acid  being  much  heavier 
than  milk,  will  run  to  the  bottom  of  the  bottle.  If  the  acid  be 
poured  straight  down  the  neck  it  will  usually  char  part  of  the 
milk  and  spoil  the  test.  The  bottle  is  now  about  three-fourths 
full.  The  milk  and  acid  are  now  to  be  mixed.  This  is  done  by 
holding  the  neck  of  the  bottle  and  swinging  the  bowl  of  it  around 
rapidly  in  a small  circle.  This  motion  puts  the  liquid  contents  of 
the  bottle  into  a rotary  motion,  which  soon  mixes  them  thor- 
oughly. When  the  acid  and  milk  begin  to  mix,  the  milk  is  at 
first  curdled,  then  the  curd  is  dissolved.  The  mixed  liquid  be- 
comes very  hot,  a thing  that  always  occurs  when  sulphuric  acid 
and  water  are  mixed.  At  first  the  mixed  liquid  is  of  a reddish 
color,  but  it  soon  turns  black. 

When  the  curd  has  been  completely  dissolved,  place  the  bottle 
in  the  centrifugal  machine,  as  shown  in  fig.  3,  or  fig.  4 ; then 
add  the  acid  to  the  milk  in  the  next  test  bottle,  and  so  on,  till  all 
the  samples  have  been  so  treated. 

Centrifugae  Machine. — This  is  what  is  meant  when  we 
speak  of  the  Babcock  Machine.  There  are  many  styles  of  it  on 
the  market.  Two  different  styles  are  illustrated  in  figs.  3 and  4. 
The  essential  feature  of  each  is  that  the  test  bottles  are  carried 
around  in  a circle,  and  at  a very  rapid  rate.  In  fig.  4,  the  bottles 
are  placed  in  cups  hung  so  that  when  the  machine  is  running  the 
bottles  lie  down  fiat,  the  tops  of  the  necks  pointing  inward.  The 
circular  motion  gives  rise  to  what  is  known  as  centrifugal  (center 
fleeing)  force  ; the  milk  presses  against  the  bottom  of  the  bottle 
much  harder  than  before  ; in  other  words,  its  weight  is  several 


8 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


times  multiplied  by  the  motion.  The  difference  between  the 
weight  of  the  fat  and  of  the  heavy  liquid  in  wdiich  it  floats  is  in- 
creased in  the  same  ratio,  and  the  fat  rises  to  the  top,  or  rather 
toward  the  center  of  the  machine.  Five  minutes  rapid  turning 
suffices  to  bring  practically  all  the  fat  to  the  surface,  where  it  may 
be  seen  as  a thin  transparent  layer.  It  is  melted,  as  the  liquid  on 
which  it  floats  is  hot.  Hot  water  is  now  to  be  added  to  bring 
the  fat  into  the  bottle  neck,  where  it  can  be  measured.  The 


water  should  be  as  nearly  boiling  as  practicable,  for  it  soon  cools 
in  the  narrow  neck  of  the  bottle,  allowing  the  fat  to  solidify.  If 
the  fat  does  turn  solid  it  should  be  melted  by  pouring  hot  water 
on  the  outside  of  the  neck. 

Hot  Watkr. — The  hot  water  may  be  conveniently  added  by 
pouring  it  first  into  the  acid  measure,  taking  care  that  no  acid  is 
in  the  latter.  (Hot  water  and  sulphuric  acid  mixed  suddenly 
will  explode).  Pour  from  the  acid  measure  to  the  test  bottle. 
The  water  should  rise  into  the  neck  of  the  test  bottle  nearly  to  the 


Bulletin  18 — The  Babcock  Milk  Test 


9 


top  of  the  graduated  scale.  The  bottles  need  not  be  removed 
from  the  machine  for  this  purpose. 

When  one  has  a considerable  number  of  tests  to  make  it  is  de- 
sirable to  have  a more  convenient  method  of  handling  the  hot 
water.  Two  very  convenient  methods  are  shown  in  fig.  2.  One 
consists  of  a half  gallon  bucket  covered  b}^  a lid  to  keep  the  water 
hot.  Near  the  bottom  on  one  side  is  soldered  a small  tube  on 
which  a rubber  tube  about  two  feet  long  is  placed.  This  tube 
should  cost  about  25  cents,  and  the  tube  soldered  in  the  side  of 
the  bucket  need  not  cost  more  than  10  or  15  cents.  In  the  other 
end  of  the  rubber  tube  is  fastened  a short  piece  of  glass  tubing, 
drawn  out  to  a moderately  fine  point.  This  may  be  had  at  any 


Fig.  4 — Another  style  of  Babcock  Milk  Tester  ; the  cut  on  the  left  shows  bottles 
in  motion  ; the  one  on  the  right  shows  them  at  rest. 

drug  store  for  5 cents.  When  not  in  use  the  rubber  tube  is  laid 
up  over  the  top  of  the  bucket  to  keep  the  water  from  running 
out.  In  running  the  water  into  the  test  bottles,  the  flow  is  regu- 
lated by  pinching  the  rubber  tube.  A thick  piece  of  cloth  placed 
between  the  tube  and  the  fingers  will  prevent  the  hot  water  from 
hurting  the  fingers.  A split  stick  on  the  rubber  tube  may  be 
used  as  pincers  to  regulate  the  flow  of  water. 

The  other  apparatus  shown  in  fig.  2 is  commonly  known  as  the 
Spritz  flask.  It  is  by  far  the  most  convenient  and  the  least  ex- 


10 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


pensive.  It  consists  of  a pint,  or  better,  a quart  bottle  with  a 
wide  mouth,  (a  pickle  bottle  usually)  with  a good  thick  cork  to 
fit  it.  By  means  of  a rat-tail  file  two  holes  are  made  in  the  cork, 
of  such  size  that  the  glass  tubes  will  fit  snugly  in  them.  A glass 
tube  (A,  fig.  2)  about  6 inches  long  is  bent  slightly  near  one  end, 
and  both  ends  of  it  rounded  by  holding  in  the  flame  of  an  alcohol 
lamp  till  the  glass  begins  to  soften.  (Glass  tubing  is  easily  bent 


Fig.  2 — Two  convenient  methods  of  handling  hot  water  for  the  Babcock  milk  test. 

when  heated  till  it  is  barely  red).  The  short  end  of  this  tube  is 
put  through  the  cork.  Air  is  blown  into  the  bottle  through  this 
tube. 

Another  piece  of  tubing  (B,  fig.  2)  about  5 inches  longer  than 
the  bottle  is  bent  as  shown  in  the  figure.  To  get  the  fine  point 
on  the  upper,  slanting  end,  heat  the  tube  near  the  end  till  it  soft- 
ens, then  pull  it  out  till  it  is  about  as  large  as  the  lead  in  a pencil. 


Bulletin  iS — The  Babcock  Milk  Test 


1 1 


Ret  it  cool,  then  break  it  at  its  narrowest  part,  and  hold  the 
broken  end  in  the  flame  an  instant  to  melt  down  its  sharp  edge. 
The  tube  is  then  pnt  through  the  cork  as  shown  in  the  figure.  It 
should  reach  nearly  to  the  bottom  of  the  bottle.  This  bottle,  com- 
pletely fitted  up  with  cork  and  tubes  should  not  cost  over  25 
cents.  The  glass  tubing  costs  only  about  5 cents,  but  the  work 
of  bending  and  fitting  is  considerable. 

Glass  tubing  may  be  broken  by  filing  a notch  in  it  with  a three- 
cornered  file.  Place  the  thumb  on  the  side  opposite  the  notch, 
and  press  against  the  thumb.  The  tube  will  usually  make  a 
clean  break  at  the  notch. 

An  alcohol  lamp,  to  be  found  in  any  drug  store,  is  very  handy 
for  bending  glass  tubing,  rounding  off  sharp  edges,  drawing  out 
to  a point,  etc. 

If  the  tubes  are  not  air  tight  in  the  cork,  run  a little  melted 
sealing  wax  around  them  on  the  upper  side  of  the  cork. 

To  use  this  apparatus,  fill  the  bottle  with  hot  water,  put  in  the 
cork  with  the  tubes  in  it.  By  taking  the  end  of  tube  a (see  fig- 
ure) in  the  mouth  and  blowing  through  it,  a fine  stream  of  water 
is  made  to  issue  from  the  point  of  tube  b.  This  stream  may  be 
directed  into  the  tops  of  the  test  bottles  in  filling  them. 

Be  careful  when  letting  loose  of  the  tube  with  the  mouth  that 
the  steam  does  not  blow  back  into  the  mouth. 

Be  careful  also  not  to  run  the  test  bottle  over  when  blowing  in 
the  hot  water.  This  spoils  the  test.  Do  not  allow  the  water  in 
the  test  bottle  to  rise  above  the  top  of  the  graduations  on  its  neck. 

Having  added  the  hot  water  to  each  test,  turn  the  machine 
again  for  a minute  or  two,  to  make  sure  that  all  the  fat  rises  into 
the  neck. 

Reading  the  Per  Cent,  of  Fat. — The  neck  of  the  test 
bottle  is  graduated  so  as  to  read  from  no  per  cent,  up  to  ten. 
The  distance  between  the  longer  marks  represents  one  per  cent. 
This  distance  is  divided  by  shorter  marks  into  five  equal  parts. 
One  of  these  smallest  divisions  therefore  represents  two-tenths  of 
one  per  cent. 

Now  .suppose  the  upper  end  of  the  fat  column  stands  at  the  sec- 
ond short  mark  above  8.  This  is  8.4.  If  the  lower  end  of  the 
fat  is  at  the  fourth  short  line  above  3 it  is  at  3.8.  The  length  of 


12 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


the  fat  column  is  therefore  8.4 — 3. 8=4.6,  which  means  that  the 
milk  tested  contains  4.6  per  cent.  fat. 

If  the  bottom  of  the  fat  stood  half  way  between  say  the  first 
and  second  divisions  above  3,  it  would  be  read  3.3,  which  is  half 
way  between  3.2  and  3.4. 

A quicker  way  to  read  the  per  cent,  is  to  place  the  point  of 
one  leg  of  a pair  of  dividers  (compasses)  against  the  neck  of  the 
test  bottle  opposite  the  bottom  of  the  fat  column  ; place  the  point 
of  the  other  leg  at  the  top  of  the  fat  column.  Then,  without 
closing  or  opening  the  dividers  any,  place  the  end  of  the  lower  leg 
at  the  zero  mark  ; the  other  leg  will  point  out  directly  the  per 
cent  of  fat. 

In  reading  the  height  of  the  upper  surface  of  the  fat  column,  a 
difficulty  will  arise.  That  surface  is  curved,  badly  so  if  the  fat 
has  begun  to  solidify.  The  center  of  the  surface  is  lower  than 
the  outer  part.  Be  sure  the  fat  is  liquid — pour  hot  water  on  the 
neck  if  necessary — then  read  the  height  of  the  edge,  not  the  cen- 
ter, of  the  upper  surface  of  the  fat. 

Cleaning  the  Bottles,  Pipette,  ETC. — The  test  bottles  are 
emptied  ( melt  the  fat  in  the  neck  if  it  has  cooled  ) , taking  care  to 
shake  the  contents  as  they  run  out,  to  remove  the  white  sediment 
in  the  bottom.  Then  fill  with  hot  water  (or  better  with  hot  soap 
suds)  ; pour  this  out,  shaking  the  bottle  to  rinse  it  as  the  hot 
water  runs  out.  The  bottles  should  now  be  placed  so  they  will 
drain,  when  they  are  ready  for  use  again. 

To  cleanse  the  milk  pipette,  draw  it  full,  first  of  cold  water, 
and  rinse  by  shaking.  This  should  be  done  before  the  milk  dries 
on  its  inner  surface.  Then  rinse  in  same  manner  with  hot  water 
or  soap  suds. 

The  acid  measure  is  cleansed  by  simply  rinsing  with  cold  water. 

Sulphuric  Acid. — This  is  a heavy,  oily  looking  liquid,  which 
in  its  pure  state  is  colorless.  A small  bit  of  cork  or  other  organic 
matter  dropping  into  it  turns  it  dark,  or  even  black.  This,  how- 
ever, does  not  injure  it  materially  for  our  purpose.  It  is  best 
kept  in  glass  stoppered  bottles.  If  these  are  not  at  hand,  rubber 
stoppers  should  be  used,  as  corks  are  eaten  up  by  the  acid.  Care 
must  be  exercised  to  prevent  coming  in  contact  with  the  acid,  as 
it  burns  the  skin,  and  eats  holes  in  cloth,  turning  most  colored 
woolens  red.  Cold  water  applied  promptly  will  remove  it,  and 


Bulletin  18 — The  Babcock  Milk  Test 


13 


ammonia  (hartshorn)  will  usually  restore  the  color  of  woolens  dis- 
colored by  it. 

The  strength  of  the  acid  should  be  such  that  its  specific  gravity 
is  between  1.82  and  1.83,  which  means  that  it  should  be  1.82  to 
1.83  times  as  heavy  as  water.  When  the  acid  has  no  water  in  it, 
its  specific  gravity  is  1.84.  It  is  supposed  to  be  of  the  right 
strength  as  it  comes  from  the  dealer.  At  the  end  of  this  bulletin 
s a list  of  dealers  who  furnish  it  of  that  strength.  The  Elgin 
Dairy  Report,  Elgin,  111.,  sells  for  35  cents,  post  paid,  a small 
float,  which  tells  you  if  the  acid  is  of  the  right  strength. 

If  the  acid  is  too  strong  it  will  partially  char  the  fat,  so  that 
a black  clot  collects  at  the  bottom  of  the  column,  making  it  dif- 
ficult to  read.  Do  not  try  to  weaken  the  acid  by  adding  water  ; 
there  is  danger  in  this.  Simply  use  a little  less  acid  than  is  called 
for.  A few  trials  will  tell  you  how  much  to  use. 

If  the  acid  is  too  weak  it  will  not  dissolve  quite  all  the  white 
curd.  In  this  case  use  a little  more  acid.  If  this  does  not  suffice, 
throw  it  away  and  get  a better  quality. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  the  mixed  milk  and  sulphuric 
acid  cannot  be  thrown  into  wooden  or  tin  vessels.  A glass  fruit 
jar,  or  an  old  earthenware  jar  or  crock  makes  a good  slop  bucket 
to  use  in  testing  milk. 

Cost  of  Acid. — Sulphuric  acid  costs  about  35  or  40  cents  a 
gallon,  plus  freight.  The  freight  on  it  is  double  first  class  rates. 
So  by  finding  out  what  the  rate  is  from  Chicago,  you  can  estimate 
what  it  will  cost  you.  A gallon  contains  15  pounds  of  the  acid. 
In  figuring  freight,  add  to  this  the  weight  of  a gallon  jug.  One 
gallon  of  acid  will  make  about  290  tests.  One  pound  makes  25 
or  26.  It  is  best  to  order  it  of  some  creamery  supply  company, 
in  gallon  lots,  to  be  sent  by  freight. 

To  Find  the  Pounds  of  Butter  Fat. 

To  find  the  number  of  pounds  of  butter  fat  in  a given  quantity 
of  milk,  it  is  only  necessary  to  multiply  the  number  of  pounds  of 
milk  by  the  per  cent,  of  fat,  as  found  by  means  of  the  Babcock 
machine.  Thus,  suppose  in  the  above  case  where  the  per  cent, 
of  fat  was  4.6,  that  there  is  16  pounds  of  the  milk.  i6x.046= 
.736  pounds.  (When  multiplying  by  the  per  cent,  of  fat,  remem- 
ber to  express  it  decimally  ; thus,  3.4  per  cent,  would  be  written 
,034  ; 4 per  cent.  .04,  etc.) 


14 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


Does  it  Pay  to  Buy  a Machine? 

If  a farmer  keeps  the  milk  from  each  cow  separate,  makes  the 
separate  lots  into  butter,  and  sells  it,  he  knows  just  what  each 
cow  is  doing  for  him.  He  has  no  use  for  a milk  tester.  But  by 
means  of  a Babcock  machine  he  can  mix  the  milk  all  together, 
and  still  know  just  what  each  cow  is  doing.  This  is  done  by 
weighing  each  cow’s  milk,  and  testing  an  occasional  sample.  A 
pair  of  spring  scales  hung  up  in  the  barn  near  the  milking  place 
makes  the  weighing  the  matter  of  a minute. 

A Very  Important  Question. — Does  it  pay  to  know  just 
what  each  cow  in  a herd  is  doing  ? 

A good  cow  eats  in  a year’s  time  about  $35  worth  of  feed. 
The  labor  necessary  to  do  the  feeding  and  milking,  and  looking 
after  the  milk,  costs,  at  ordinary  wages,  about  $15,  making  the 
cost  of  a year’s  keep  about  $50.  Now,  after  crediting  the  cow 
with  a $5  calf,  she  must  yield  butter  worth  $45.  This  will  re- 
quire 225  pounds  of  20  cent  butter,  or  300  pounds  of  15  cent  but- 
ter. The  farmer  who  is  selling  butter,  or  selling  milk  to  a cream- 
ery or  cheese  factory,  and  who  has  a cow  that  gives  less  than  225. 
pounds  of  butter  a year,  could  make  more  money  by  shooting  the 
cow,  selling  the  feed,  and  hiring  to  his  neighbor  at  ordinal 
wages.  When  it  is  remembered  that  the  average  cow  in  the 
United  States  makes  about  130  pounds  of  butter  a year,  it  is  seen 
that  thousands  of  farmers  are  working  for  less  than  common 
wages. 

There  are  herds  of  dairy  cows,  scrub  cows  too,  if  you  please, 
that  give  300  pounds  of  butter  fat  a year,  or  even  350  pounds. 
But  their  owners  stand  over  them  with  a Babcock  machine  in  one 
hand  and  a butcher  knife  in  the  other.  That  is  what  the  pro- 
gressive farmer  in  this  state  is  going  to  do  ; and  when  he  learns  to 
do  so  with  judgment,  he  will  find  dairying  distinctly  profitable. 

Variations  in  Per  Cent,  of  Fat. 

It  has  been  found  that  a cow’s  milk  grows  gradually  richer  as 
it  decreases  in  quantity  ; that  is,  as  the  period  of  lactation  ad- 
vances 

The  following  figures,  from  Illinois  bulletin  24,  shows  the  aver- 
age per  cent,  of  fat  for  each  month  in  milk  for  a number  of  cows :: 


Bulletin  18 — The  Babcock  Milk  Test 


i5 


Cow 
No.  1 

1 

Cow 
No.  2 

Cow 
No.  3 

Cow 
No.  4 

Cow 
No.  5 

1st  Month 

4-5 

3-7 

3-5 

3-3 

2.9 

2nd  Month 

4-6 

3-2 

3-9 

3-6 

2. a 

3rd  Month 

4-7 

3-3 

4.0 

3-8 

3-3* 

4th  Month 

4-9 

3-7 

3-9 

3-7 

3.2 

5th  Month 

4-6 

3-7 

3-9 

4.0 

3-i 

6th  Month 

4-9 

3-8 

3-9 

3-6 

3-4- 

7th  Month 

5-4 

3-7 

3-9 

4-0 

3-6 

8th  Month 

5-2 

3-6 

4.1 

4-3 

3-7 

9th  Month 

5-7 

3-8 

4.1 

4.0 

3-8 

10th  Month 

6-3 

4.0 

3-9 

3-8 

4.0 

nth  Month 

6.4 

3-8 

4.0 

4.0 

12th  Month.  

3-9 

13th  Month 

4.2 

14th  Month  . 

4.7 

1 • • • 

In  each  case  the  milk  grows  richer  in  fat  the  longer  the  cow 
has  been  in  milk,  though  the  increase  is  by  no  means  regular  in 
some  cases.  It  is  tolerably  regular  with  Nos.  1 and  5. 

Daily  Variation. — In  order  to  obtain  some  definite  figures  to 
illustrate  the  daily  variation  in  per  cent,  of  fat,  the  milk  from 
two  cows  in  our  station  herd  was  tested  night  and  morning  for 
two  weeks,  with  the  following  result : 


tRoc  C°W  Cow 

I895'  No.  I No.  2 

0 Cow  Cow 

l°95‘  No.  1 No.  2 

March  9 -j4'2  4'^ 

* (4°  4-2 

March  10 -j4’4  4’2 

March  11 -j4’0  45 

14-2  4-2 

March  12 -j4' 1 2 

U-2  4-4 

March  J3 |fo  t°2 

March  |f  8 fo 

March  « jf  0 Jo 

March  16 If  1 it 

March  |f  1 f 3 

March  18 j4  ° 4 ^ 

(4-0  4-4 

March  19 -H  ] 4-8 

(4  4 4-4 

March  20 -j4'0  4 8 

4-0  4-2 

March  21 -j4'4  4 2 

(4-2  41 

March  22 j5-°  4-8 

These  tests  were  made  by  Mr.  C.  J.  Oberst,  a student  of  the 
college. 

The  amount  of  the  daily  variation  may  be  much  greater  than 
here  shown.  These  cows  were  kept  under  fairly  uniform  con- 
ditions. In  cases  where  cows  are  subjected  to  excitement  of  any 
kind  the  variation  may  be  very  great.  In  the  Illinois  bulletin 


i6 


Washbigton  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


above  referred  to  a certain  cow,  on  June  29,  gave  milk  containing 
2.8  per  cent,  fat ; the  next  day  it  was  6.6  per  cent.  These  vari- 
ations can  not  always  be  accounted  for.  Some  cows  give  milk 
that  is  very  constant  in  composition  ; others  are  just  the  opposite. 
As  much  depends  on  the  individuality  of  the  cow  as  on  anything 
else. 

The  casein  and  other  constituents  of  milk  also  vary  in  a manner 
very  similar  to  that  of  fat,  but  their  variations  are  seldom  so 
great. 

The  per  cent,  of  total  solids  (fat,  casein,  albumen,  milk  sugar, 
and  mineral  matter)  in  milk  gradually  increases  the  longer  a cow 
is  in  milk. 


THE  BABGOCK  MACHINE  IN  THE  CREAMERY. 

So  far  as  the  writer  is  aware,  all  the  creameries  in  this  state  use 
the  separator  system  of  creaming.  The  gathered  cream  plan 
pursued  in  many  of  the  older  dairy  districts  finds  little  favor  here. 
This  is  very  fortunate,  for  not  only  is  there  far  less  loss  of  fat  with 
the  separator  system,  but  the  quality  of  the  butter  can  be  made 
uniformly  better.  However,  it  is  thought  best  to  discuss  the  use 
of  the  Babcock  Milk  Test  in  both  classes  of  creameries,  as  it  is 
equally  important  to  each  where  they  exist,  and  it  is  probable 
that  some  gathered  cream  creameries  will  be  established  from 
time  to  time. 

In  Separator  Creameries. 

By  means  of  what  is  known  as  the  composite  test,  it  is  possible 
to  ascertain  exactly  how  much  butter  fat  is  brought  to  the  cream- 
ery by  each  patron  without  the  trouble  of  testing  the  milk  every 
day. 

The  composite  test  is  therefore  almost,  or  quite,  universal  in 
creameries  using  the  Babcock  Machine.  It  differs  in  no  way 
from  the  test  as  described  in  the  preceding  pages,  except  that  the 
samples  taken  daily  are  kept  to  the  end  of  the  week,  or  other  con- 
venient time,  and  then  tested.  They  are  kept  from  curdling  by 


Bulletin  18 — The  Babcock  Milk  Test 


7 


adding  to  them  potassium  bichromate,  or  any  one  of  several  other 
poisons,  as  explained  below.  It  is  called  a composite  test  because 
all  the  samples  from  the  milk  of  a given  patron  are  mixed  to- 
gether and  the  mixture  only  is  tested.  The  sample  taken  each 
day  is  simply  poured  into  the  vessel  containing  that  of  the  day 
before,  and  so  on  till  testing  time. 

Receptacles  for  Samples. — The  samples  are  usually  kept 
in  glass  jars  holding  about  a quart.  Ordinary  fruit  jars  are  suit- 
able. Dealers  in  dairy  supplies  furnish  jars  made  for  this  pur- 
pose ; they  cost  about  the  same  as  fruit  jars,  and  are  perhaps 
slightly  better  adapted  to  the  work. 


i8 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


Shelves  for  Sample  Jars. — Figure  5 shows  a convenient 
form  of  portable  shelves  for  holding  the  samples.  These  shelves 
stand  near  the  weigh-can.  Hand  holes  at  the  sides  make  it  con- 
venient to  carry  them  to  the  Babcock  Machine  when  ready  for 
testing.  When  more  than  24  jars  are  in  use  it  is  best  to  have 
two  sets  of  shelves,  as  more  than  that  number  would  be  incon- 
veniently heavy,  and  the  danger  of  accidents  thereby  increased. 
I11  case  of  accidental  loss  of  a composite  sample,  as  fair  a way  to 
do  as  any  is  to  replace  it  by  the  average  of  the  preceding  and  the 
fqllowing  test,  unless  it  happens  to  be  known  that  the  result  of 
the  preceding  or  the  following  test  would  alone  be  nearer  the  cor- 
rect figure.  In  case  a considerable  change  should  be  made  in  the 
herd  of  a patron,  as  by  sale  or  purchase,  just  before  the  sample  is 
lost,  the  following  sample  would  probably  be  nearer  the  lost  one 
than  would  the  average  of  the  one  before  and  the  one  after. 

Preserving  the  Sample. — A sample  that  has  become  curdled 
can  not  be  fairly  tested  ; it  is  therefore  necessary  to  prevent 
curdling.  This  is  done  by  placing  in  each  sample-jar  a small 
quantity  of  potassium  bichromate,  or  any  one  of  a number  of  such 
poisons.  Whatever  is  used  should  be  in  the  solid  form,  and 
should  be  powdered  unless  it  is  very  readily  soluble  in  the  milk. 
One  great  advantage  of  potassium  bichromate  is  that  it  imparts  a 
lemon  or  orange  color  to  the  milk,  and  no  one  is  liable  to  mistake 
it  for  ordinary  milk,  and  thus  get  poisoned  by  drinking  it.  This 
material  is  also  quite  cheap. 

The  poison  should  be  placed  in  the  jars  before  any  samples  are 
put  into  them. 

Quantity  of  Potassium  Bichromate  to  use. — One-fourth 
to  on^-half  gram  of  this  substance  will  keep  a pint  to  a quart  of 
milk  from  curdling  for  a week.  One  gram  of  powdered  potassium 
bichromate  is  about  what  would  lie  on  a copper  cent.  A little 
practice  will  enable  one  to  guess  with  sufficient  accuracy  the 
proper  amount.  The  idea  is  to  keep  the  milk  from  curdling,  3Tet 
not  to  use  any  more  of  the  poison  than  is  necessary.  A large  ex- 
cess is  said  to  interfere  with  the  accuracy  of  the  test.  A little  too 
much  is  better  than  not  quite  enough,  for  the  latter  spoils  the 
test.  Enough  should  be  used  to  give  the  milk  a light  straw  color. 

Precautions  in  Taking  Samples. — If  samples  are  taken  by 
means  of  a dipper  or  cup,  care  should  be  exercised  to  see  that  the 


Bulletin  18 — The  Babcock  Milk  Test 


19 


milk  is  thoroughly  stirred  up  when  the  sample  is  taken.  Thorough 
mixing  can  be  accomplished  by  taking  a large  dipper  (half  gal- 
lon at  least)  and  dipping  up  and  pouring  back  several  times. 
The  milk  is  usually  pretty  well  mixed  immediately  after  pouring 
it  into  the  weigh-can  from  the  delivery  cans. 

The  size  of  the  sample  should  also  correspond  with  the  amount 
of  milk  from  which  it  is  taken.  An  illustration  will  show  why. 
Suppose  A brings  in  to-day  100  pounds  of  milk,  containing  4 per 
cent,  fat,  to-morrow  he  brings  50  pounds,  containing  5 per  cent, 
fat.  The  first  day  he  brings  4 pounds  of  fat  and  the  second,  2 ^ 
pounds,  or  6 in  all.  Now  if  equal  samples  of  these  two  days’ 
milk  were  taken  and  mixed,  the  mixture  would  test  4^  per  cent, 
showing  150  x .045=6.75  pounds  of  fat,  or  % pound  more  than 
was  actually  brought.  But  if  the  sample  on  the  second  day  had 
been  only  half  as  large  as  that  on  the  first,  the  mixed  samples 
would  have  tested  4^3  per  cent,  and  150  x .04^=6.50,  which  is 
correct. 

This  error  does  not  occur  unless  the  milk  varies  both  in  quan- 
tity and  richness,  but  as  both  of  these  vary  to  some  extent,  it  is 
a little  fairer  to  make  the  size  of  the  sample  correspond  to  the 
amounUof  milk.  There  are  a number  of  impliments  for  taking 
samples  that  accomplish  this.  The  “ Milk  Thief”  is  such  an  in- 
strument. It  takes  a small  column  of  milk,  just  as  long  as  the 
milk  is  deep,  hence  the  amount  taken  depends  on  the  amount  of 
the  milk.  This  instrument  also  gets  a fair  sample  from  milk  not 
thoroughly  stirred  up,  as  it  takes  milk  from  the  bottom,  middle 
and  top  of  the  vessel  alike. 

In  the  absence  of  a “Milk  Thief,”  or  some  similar  device,  a 
very  convenient  form  of  dipper  is  a small  cylindrical  cup,  with  a 
long  wire  handle  soldered  to  one  side  of  it.  The  cup  should  hold 
about  an  ounce  of  milk.  It  may  be  1 inch  in  diameter  and  2^ 
inches  deep,  or  1%  inches  in  diameter  and  1 inch  deep.  The  lat- 
ter fqrm  is  preferable,  because  it  can  be  more  easily  cleaned. 
When  a sample  is  added  to  a jar  it  should  be  mixed  with  that  al- 
ready in  the  jar.  In  doing  this,  be  careful  not  to  churn  the  mix- 
ture. Give  the  jar  a circular  motion,  causing  the  milk  inside  to 
flow  round  and  round  until  the  cream  is  all  washed  from  the  sides  of 
the  jar.  The  sample  will  then  be  sufficiently  mixed.  All  samples 
to  be  kept  for  some  time  should  be  shaken  this  way  occasionally 
to  prevent  the  cream  from  hardening  on  the  surface. 


20 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


Process  of  testing.— The  composite  samples  are  tested  in 
exactly  the  same  manner  as  already  described  for  single  samples. 
Carefully  mix  the  sample  by  stirring  as  above  before  measuring 
out  the  portion  for  the  test.  The  accuracy  of  the  test  depends 
largely  on  the  thorough  mixing  of  the  sample. 

A Frequent  Difficulty. — There  is  some  times  found  at  the 
bottom  of  the  fat  column  in  the  neck  of  the  test  bottle  a mass  of 
black  material  that  renders  it  uncertain  just  where  the  bottom  of 
the  column  is.  Some  times  also  there  are  small  white  clots  that 
interfere  in  the  same  way. 

The  presence  of  the  black  material,  which  is  a portion  of  the 
fat  charred  by  the  acid,  may  be  due  to  one  of  three  things  : 

First. — The  acid  may  have  been  poured  into  the  test  bottle  so 
as  to  drop  down  through  the  milk,  instead  of  running  down  on 
the  inside  surface  of  the  bottle  as  it  should  do. 

Second. — The  acid  may  be  too  strong,  in  which  case,  use  a lit- 
tle less  of  it,  or  cool  the  milk  before  adding  the  acid. 

Third. — The  milk  may  have  been  too  warm. 

When  the  acid  is  of  proper  strength,  the  temperature  of  the 
milk  should  be  between  6o°  and  70°  F.  If  the  acid  is  too  .strong, 
good  results  can  usually  be  obtained  by  making  the  milk  cooler  ; 
if  too  weak,  make  the  milk  warmer. 

Hot  Water. — Where  the  number  of  tests  to  be  made  is  as 
large  as  it  must  be  in  any  creamery,  some  convenient  means  of 
handling  hot  water  is  required.  Hither  of  the  devices  shown  in 
fig.  2 is  very  convenient.  It  is  better,  however,  to  have  hot  water 
brought  near  the  machine  from  the  pipes  in  the  building  ; a small 
faucet  with  a rubber  tube  attached  similar  to  the  tube  shown  in 
fig.  2,  A,  completes  the  hot  water  arrangements. 

Computing  Dividends. — In  order  to  know  how  much  is  due 
each  patron  the  first  thing  necessary  is  to  ascertain  how  much 
butter  fat  he  has  furnished.  To  do  this,  multiply  the*  per 
cent,  of  fat  in  each  composite  sample  by  the  number  of  pounds  of 
milk  from  which  that  sample  was  taken  ; if  more  than  one  com- 
posite sample  has  been  tested  for  each  patron,  calculate  the 
pounds  of  fat  for  each  test  separately  and  add  the  results. 

To  illustrate  : Suppose  we  are  to  calculate  the  pounds  of  fat 

furnished  &y  A from  July  1 to  27  inclusive.  Suppose  four  com- 


Bulletin  18 — The  Babcock  Milk  Test 


2 1 


posite  samples  have  been  taken,  the  first  on  July  1-6,  the  second 
on  the  7-13,  the  third  the  14-20,  and  the  fourth  the  21-27. 

During  each  of  these  four  periods  the  pounds  of  milk  and  the 
corresponding  per  cent,  of  fat  was  as  follows  : 


July  1-6,  750  lbs.,  per  cent,  of  fat 4.2 

July  7-13,  765  lbs.,  per  cent,  of  fat  4.1 

July  14-20,  740  lbs.,  per  cent,  of  fat 4.3 

July  21-27,  745  lbs.,  per  cent,  of  fat 4.2 


The  calculations  are  as  follows  : 

750  x .042=31.500. 

765  x .041=32.365. 

740  x .043=31.820. 

745  x .042=31.290. 

125.975  lbs. 

It  is  thus  seen  that  a separate  calculation  should  be  made  so  as 
to  show  the  number  of  pounds  of  fat  furnished  each  week,  or  each 
test  period  when  the  periods  are  other  than  a week. 

It  should  be  remembered  when  multiplying  that  4 per  cent.= 
.04,  3.5  per  cent.=.o35,  etc. 

Having  now  ascertained  the  number  of  pounds  of  fat  furnished 
by  each  patron,  it  remains  to  find  how  much  is  due  each  of  them. 
The  manner  of  doing  this  depends  on  the  agreement  between  the 
'Creamery  and  its  patrons. 

First  Method. — Some  creameries  agree  to  pay  simply  so 
much  per  pound  for  butter-fat  furnished,  the  price  usually  bear- 
ing a fixed,  relation  to  the  price  of  butter.  Where  this  is  done, 
the  amount  due  each  patron  is  found  by  multiplying  the  number 
of  pounds  of  fat  furnished  by  the  stipulated  price  per  pound. 

Second  Method. — Several  of  the  creameries  in  this  state 
charge  so  much  a pound  for  manufacturing  and  marketing  the 
butter,  dividing  the  remainder  of  the  proceeds  of  sales  between 
the  patrons.  The  method  of  computing  dividends  under  this 
system  is  illustrated  by  the  following  example  : 

The  total  pounds  of  fat  furnished  by  all  patrons  during  a given 
four  weeks  is  9750.  This  has  been  made  into  10562.5  pounds  of 
butter,  which  has  been  sold  for  22  cents  a pound.  The  creamery 
charges  are  five  cents  a pound  of  butter.  What  is  A’s  dividend 
if  he  furnished  120  pounds  of  fat  during  the  four  weeks? 


22 


Weshington  Agricultural  Experiment  Statio?i 


Solution  : 22c — 50=  17c  ; 10562.5  pounds  butter,  at  17  cents 

a pound  amounts  to  $1795.625,  the  amount  due  patrons.  Divid- 
ing this  by  9750,  the  number  of  pounds  fat  furnished,  we  have, 

1795  .625  The  price  patrons  receive  per  pound  of  fat. 

9750  ’ 4 A’ s dividend  is  therefore  1 20X.  1 841  =$20. 09. 

We  may  state  this  method  in  the  following 


Rule  for  Computing  Dividends. 

Deduct  the  fixed  creamery  charge  from  the  price  for  which  the 
butter  was  sold.  Multiply  the  pounds  of  butter  made  during  the 
given  time , by  the  remainder.  Divide  this  product  by  the  total  fat 
furnished  by  patrons  durmg  the  time.  Multiply  this  quotient  by  the 
7iumbcr  of  pounds  of  fat  furnished  by  each  patron.  The  result  wilt 
be  the  amounts  due  each  patro?i. 

The  above  rule  consists  of  four  operations  : The  first  gives  the 

price  patrons  are  to  receive  per  pound  of  butter. 

The  second,  the  amount  to  be  divided  between  the  patrons. 

The  third  gives  the  price  per  pound  of  fat. 

The  fourth  gives  each  patron’s  dividend. 

The  above  method  is  a popular  one.  It  is  also  well  adapted  to 
co-operative  creameries. 

Third  Method. — A third  method  is  sometimes  used,  but  the 
principle  of  it  is  essentially  that  of  the  first  method  given  above. 
It  consists  in  paying  so  much  per  hundred  pounds  of  4 per  cent, 
milk.  If  the  price  of  4 per  cent,  milk  is  fixed  at  80  cents,  then  1 
per  cent,  milk  would  be  20  cents;  2 percent.,  40  cents;  5 per 
cent.,  $1.00,  etc. 

Any  of  the  above  methods  is  as  fair  as  another,  if  prices  be 
properly  adjusted.  They  are  all  three  in  use  in  creameries  in 
this  state. 

Detection  of  Losses. 

The  work  of  the  Babcock  Machine  in  a creamery  does  not  stop 
with  calculating  dividends.  One  of  its  most  important  uses  is  the 
detection  of  losses  in  skim  and  butter-milk.  In  a well  conducted 
creamery  investigated  by  the  Connecticut  experiment  station  the 
loss  of  fat  in  separator  and  churn  amounted  to  7 per  cent,  of  the 
total  fat  in  the  milk  used.  That  is,  in  every  $100  worth  of  fat, 
$7.50  worth  of  it  was  wasted.  In  poorly  conducted  creameries,. 


Bulletin  18 — The  Babcock  Milk  Test 


23 


and  in  most  farm  dairies,  the  losses  are  far  more  than  this.  It  is, 
therefore,  important  that  every  creamery  should  occasionally  test 
its  skim-milk  and  butter-milk  in  order  to  know  if  there  are  any 
preventable  losses.  With  present  appliances,  with  careful  man- 
agement, a creamery  may  expect  to  recover  in  the  butter  about 
92  per  cent,  of  the  fat  in  the  milk. 

Testing  Skim-milk  and  Butter-milk. — The  ordinary  test 
bottles  are  not  satisfactory  where  accurate  tests  of  skim  and  butter- 
milk are  desired.  Special  bottles  are  to  be  had  for  this  purpose, 
holding  twice  as  much  as  the  ordinary  ones,  thus  making  the  fat 
column  twice  as  long.  In  making  the  test  with  these  bottles, 
two  pipettes  of  milk  and  two  measures  of  acid  are  used. 

In  Gathered-Cream  Creameries. 

This  class  of  creameries  was  formerly  much  more  common  than 
now,  the  superiority  of  the  separator  system  having  gradually 
driven  them  out.  Under  the  gathered-cream  system,  the  cream- 
gatherer  makes  the  rounds  of  the  farms  and  collects  the  cream 
which  has  been  allowed  to  rise  in  cans  kept  by  the  farmer.  These 
cans  are  usually  of  special  construction  and  of  certain  size,  so  that 
the  amount  of  cream  can  be  quickly  measured.  The  cream-gath- 
erer, when  the  Babcock  Machine  is  used,  takes  with  him  a case 
of  sample  bottles,  and  each  morning  takes  a sample  of  the  cream, 
and  also  the  weight  of  the  cream  before  putting  it  into  his  cans. 

The  necessity  of  paying  for  cream  by  fat  content,  rather  than 
by  volume,  is  apparent  from  the  statement  that  in  a single  trip  of 
a gatherer  for  a Connecticut  creamery  the  per  cent,  of  fat  in  the 
samples  of  cream  taken  varied  from  14  per  cent,  to  24  per  cent., 
and  this  is  not  an  unusual  variation. 

Great  care  must  be  taken  in  getting  test  samples  of  cream  to 
see  that  the  cream  is  thoroughly  mixed.  Special  test  bottles  are 
provided  for  testing  cream.  Most  of  them  are  to  be  used  exactly 
as  ordinary  test  bottles,  the  manipulation  being  precisely  the 
same  as  for  whole  milk.  The  special  feature  consists  in  a wide 
neck  so  that  the  fat  column  will  not  be  so  long,  or  a swollen 
place  in  the  neck,  with  graduations  above  and  below.  In  using 
the  latter,  the  amount  of  hot  water  added  to  the  test  bottle  should 
be  sufficient  to  bring  the  upper  surface  of  the  fat  above  the  swell- 
ing, while  the  lower  surface  should  be  below  it. 


24 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


THE  BABCOCK  MACHINE  IN  THE  CHEESE  FACTORY. 


It  is  generally  supposed  that  the  casein  (that  which  rennet 
curdles)  is  what  makes  cheese,  and  that  for  this  reason  the  Bab- 
cock machine  has  no  business  in  a cheese  factory.  It  will  there- 
fore be  surprising  to  man5^  to  know  that  the  butter  fat  in  milk  is 
as  good  an  index  of  the  amount  of  cheese  the  milk  will  make  as 
it  is  of  the  amount  of  butter  it  will  make. 

Here  are  some  figures  in  this  connection,  obtained  from  a long 
series  of  carefully  conducted  experiments  by  the  New  York 
station  : 

One  hundred  pounds  of  milk  containing  3 per  cent,  of  fat  made 
S pounds  of  cheese  with  the  following  composition. 

Butter  fat . ...  2.72  pounds 

Casein  1.90  pounds 

Water  and  salt 3.63  pounds 


Total 8.25  pounds 

Of  milk  containing  4 per  cent,  fat,  100  pounds  made  cheese 

composed  of 

Butter  fat 3.70  pounds 

Casein 2.57  pounds 

Water  and  salt 4.73  pounds 


Total 11  00  pounds 

The  cheese  from  100  pounds  of  4 per  cent,  milk  contained 

Butter  fat 4.68  pounds 

Casein 3.05  pounds 

Water  and  salt 5 .65  pounds 


Total 13 .38  ponnds 

In  every  case,  there  was  more  fat  than  casein  in  the  cheese. 

In  the  case  of  the  3 per  cent,  milk,  there  was  2.75  pounds  of 
cheese  for  every  pound  of  butter  fat  in  the  milk  ; with  4 per  cent, 
milk  there  was  2.75  pounds  of  cheese  again  for  each  pound  of  fat 
in  the  milk  ; with  5 per  cent  milk,  there  was  2.67  pounds  of 
cheese  for  each  pound  of  fat  in  the  milk.  From  this  we  can  de- 
duce the  following  rule  : To  find  the  pounds  of  cheese  a given 

quantity  of  whole  milk  will  make,  multiply  the  pounds  of  fat  in 
the  milk  by  2^. 


Bulletin  18 — The  Babcock  Milk  Test 


2 5 


The  injustice  of  buying  milk  by  quantity  at  a cheese  factory  is 
as  great  as  it  is  at  a creamery.  The  Babcock  machine  is  worth 
just  as  much  to  the  rich-milk  patron  of  a cheese  factory  as  of  a 
creamery. 

This  rule  does  not  apply  to  skim-milk,  only  to  whole  milk. 
The  reason  is  this  : The  amount  of  casein  in  whole  milk  bears 

nearly  a constant  ratio  to  the  amount  of  fat.  Thus,  if  one  cow’s 
milk  contains  twice  as  much  fat  as  another’s  it  will  contain  twice 
as  much  casein  too.  In  this  connection,  some  figures  from  the 
New  York  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  No.  68,  will  be  interest- 
ing. They  are  given  in  the  table  below.  Column  I gives  the 
number  of  samples  tested  ; II,  the  average  per  cent,  of  fat  in 
them  ; III,  average  per  cent,  of  casein  ; IV,  average  pounds  of 
casein  for  each  pound  of  fat. 


I. 

No.  Samples. 

II. 

Per  Cent.  Fat. 

III. 

Per  Cent.  Casein. 

IV. 

Pounds  Casein  to 
1 Pound  Fat. 

22 

3-35 

2.20 

.66 

1 12 

3 72 

2.46 

.66 

78 

4-15 

2 . 70 

.65 

16 

4-74 

3 05 

.64 

7 

5-i3 

3 12 

.61 

The  per  cent  of  fat  and  of  casein  increase  together. 

This  shows  why,  in  whole  milk,  the  per  cent,  of  fat  is  an  index 
to  the  amount  of  cheese  that  milk  will  make.  It  will  be  noticed 
that  when  the  milk  is  very  rich  in  fat,  the  amount  of  casein  does 
not  increase  quite  so  fast  as  the  fat,  and  hence  very  rich  milk 
will  not  make  quite  as  much  cheese  as  the  above  rule  calls  for  ; 
but  the  quality  of  the  cheese  from  rich  milk  is  so  much  better 
than  that  from  poor  milk  that  the  difference  is  fully  made  up  in 
the  higher  price  the  cheese  will  bring. 

The  information  contained  in  the  following  pages  will  be  of  in- 
terest, both  to  creamery  men  and  to  dairy  farmers. 

Composition  of  Milk,  Butter  and  Cheese. 

Dairy  products  vary  greatly  in  composition.  The  table  below 
gives  the  average  composition  from  many  analyses  : 


26 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


PERCENTAGE  COMPOSITION  OF  DAIRY  PRODUCTS. 


Water 

Fat 

Casein 

Al- 

bumen 

Milk 

Sugar 

Mineral 

Matter 

Milk 

77- 

4- 

2.60 

.70 

4-95 

•75 

Skim  Milk  

90.25 

• 3 

2-75 

•75 

5 .15 

.80 

Butter  Milk 

90.50 

• 5 

2.40 

.60 

530 

•70 

Cream 

74.05 

18.8 

2. 

• 50 

4.15 

•50 

Whey 

92.97 

•5 

• 15 

.78 

5.00 

.60 

Butter 

14. 10 

85. 

.60 

•15 

0.00 

•15 

Cheese 

33-25 

35-5 

24.65 

0 00 

450 

2 . 10 

When  100  pounds  of  average  4-per  cent  milk  is  made  into  but- 
ter by  ordinary  creamery  methods,  there  results,  on  an  average 

Skim  milk ' ' ' ‘ 80.  pounds 

Buttermilk 15 .67  pounds 

Butter 4-33  pounds 

Total 100.00  pounds 

When  made  into  cheese,  the  results  are 

Whey 90 . pounds 

pounds 


Cheese . 


10. 


Total 100.  pounds 

The  following  table  shows  what  becomes  of  the  various  in- 
gredients of  milk  in  butter  and  cheese  making.  The  left  hand 
column  shows  the  pounds  of  each  ingredient  in  100  pounds  of 
average  milk  ; by  following  the  line  to  the  right  of  the  name  of 
each  ingredient  will  be  found  what  becomes  of  that  ingredient 
when  the  milk  is  made  into  either  butter  or  cheese : 

distribution  of  ingredients  in  butter  and  cheese  making. 


Whole 

Milk 

Pounds 

Skim 

Milk 

Pounds 

Butter 

Milk 

Pounds 

Butter 

Pounds 

Whey 

Pounds 

Cheese 

Pounds 

Water 

87. 

72 . 2 

14. 18 

.62 

83  67 

333 

Fat 

4 

.24 

.08 

3.68 

• 45 

3-55 

Casein 

2 6 

2.2 

.38 

.02 

• 14 

2.46 

Albumen 

.7 

.6 

.09 

.01 

.7 

Milk  Sugar 

4-95 

4 12 

.83 

45 

• 45 

Mineral  Matter 

•75 

.64 

. 11 

• 54 

.21 

Totals 

100  00 

80.00 

1567 

4-33 

90.00 

10.00 

To  illustrate  the  use  of  the  above  table  let  11s  consider  what 
becomes  of  the  fat  in  100  pounds  of  milk. 


Bulletin  18 — The  Babcock  Milk  Test 


21 


The  table  shows  that  of  the  four  pounds  of  fat  in  the  milk,  .24 
pounds  go  into  the  skim-milk,  .08  pounds  into  the  butter-milk, 
and  3.68  pounds  into  the  butter  ; or,  if  cheese  is  made  instead  of 
butter,  .45  pounds  of  fat  go  into  the  whey,  and  3.55  pounds  into 
the  cheese. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  totals  under  columns  headed  Butter, 
Butter-milk  and  Skim-milk,  when  added  together,  give  100 
pounds,  the  weight  of  the  whole  milk  ; the  totals  under  the  last 
two  columns,  or  the  whey  and  cheese  columns,  give  the  same. 

Relation  Between  Butter-fat  and  Butter. 

In  the  above  table  it  is  seen  that,  although  there  is  a loss  of  fat 
in  both  skim-milk  and  butter-milk,  the  4 pounds  of  fat  originally 
in  the  milk  yields  4.33  pounds  of  butter.  The  reason  for  this  is 
plain  when  it  is  remembered  that  average  butter  is  only  85  per 
cent,  of  fat,  the  remainder  being  water,  casein  and  albumen.  At 
the  same  rate  100  pounds  of  fat  would  yield  108^3  pounds  of 
butter,  and  this  is  about  the  average  result  in  creameries  generally. 

If  the  fat  should  yield  at  the  same  rate,  and  none  were  lost  in 
skimming  and  churning,  100  pounds  would  make  117^3  pounds 
of  butter. 

When  butter  is  made  under  ordinary  farm  conditions  the  loss 
of  fat  in  both  skimming  and  churning  is  very  much  greater  than 
the  above. 

List  of  Dealers  in  Creamery  and  Dairy  Supplies. 

Creamery  Package  Mfg.  Co Chicago,  Illinois 

Cornish,  Curtis  & Greene  Mfg.  Co.,  Fort  Akinson,  Wis.,andSt.  Paul,  Minn 

Haney  & Campbell  Mfg.  Co Dubuque,  Iowa 

D.  F.  Barclay Elgin,  Illinois 

F.  B.  Fargo  & Co Lake  Mills,  Wis 

Advertisements  of  others  may  be  found  in  dairy  papers. 

Get  the  catalogues  issued  by  one  or  two  of  these  firms  and  keep 
posted  on  prices. 


WASHINGTON  STATE  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE  AND 
SCHOOL  OL  SCIENCE 


Experiment  Station 

PULLMAN,  WASHINGTON 

Bulletin  19 


All  bulletins  of  this  station  sent  free  to  citizens  of  the  state 
on  application  to  the  Director. 

DEPARTMENT  OF  HORTICULTURE 

VEGETABLES 

MOTES  ON  THE  CROPS  OF  1 SOS 

By  J.  A.  Balmer 

1S96 


THE  CALVERT  CO.,  716  FIRST  AVE.,  SEATTLE 


THE  AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 

BOARD  OF  CONTROL. 


T.  R.  Tannatt,  President , Farmington 

J.  W.  Stearns,  Treasurer , Tekoa 

E.  S.  Ingraham,  Vice  President , - Seattle 

H.  S.  Beandford, Walla  Walla 

J.  W.  Arrasmith, Colfax 

STATION  STAFF. 

Enoch  A.  Bryan,  ------------  Director 

W.  J.  Spieeman,  - ---------  Agriculturist 

C.  V.  Piper,  - - -----  Botanist  and  Entomologist 

Eeton  Fuemer,  - - - - - - - Chemist 

John  A.  Baemer,  ----------  Horticulturist 

Clarence  C.  Feetcher,  ------  Assistant  Chemist 


VEGETABLES 

By  J.  A.  BALMER 

The  plot  of  ground  containing  about  four  acres,  set  aside  for 
the  cultivation  of  vegetables,  is  by  no  means  a typical  garden 
spot. 

The  contour  of  the  land  is  such  that  a part  of  the  ground 
faces  the  northeast,  and  a part  the  southwest,  with  a ridge  or  hog- 
back, running  diagonally,  and  sloping  from  southeast  to  north- 
west. 

SOIL. 

The  soil  is  peculiar  to  the  Palouse  valley  where  the  experiment 
station  is  situated;  it  can  hardly  be  called  a loam,  nor  is  it  a clay, 
yet  it  partakes  somewhat  of  the  nature  of  each.  There  is  not  a 
grain  ot  sand  in  its  composition,  yet  it  is  easily  worked  when  the 
moisture  conditions  are  right.  It  is  a retentive  soil,  packs  close 
and  water  percolates  through  it  very  slowly,  is  rich  in  the  necessary 
mineral  matter,  but  lacks  humus.  It  overlies  a basalt  formation. 
It  is  a soil  that  requires  barnyard  manure  to  improve  its  me- 
chanical conditions. 

There  is  an  impression  abroad  that  virgin  soil  contains  all  the 
elements  necessary  to  the  production  of  bountiful  crops.  This  is 
not  always  the  case  however,  for  probably  the  poorest  land  we 
have  on  the  station  for  vegetable  gardening  is  that  most  recently 
reclaimed  from  the  bunch  grass  waste.  The  vegetables  this 
season  were  grown  on  land  that  has  been  in  cultivation  for  several 
years  but  has  never  been  manured  except  in  spots  for  special  pur- 
poses. 

The  climatic  conditions  the  past  season  were  such  that  it  left 
us  a very  short  and  dry  growing  season. 

On  the  northeast  slope  where  our  hotbeds  are  situated,  the  frost 
was  not  out  of  the  ground  nor  the  soil  dry  enough  to  work  until 
the  last  week  in  March,  consequently  our  hotbeds  were  not  made, 
and  seeds  sown  before  the  first  week  in  April. 


4 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


The  bulk  of  seeds  were  sown  in  the  open  ground  after  the  20th 
of  April,  and  as  the  first  killing  frost  fell  this  year  on  the  3d  of 
September,  it  left  us  less  than  four  and  a half  months  in  which  to 
produce  the  most  of  our  garden  crops.  It  is  a waste  of  time  and 
seed  to  try  and  force  the  season  in  this  soil,  for  until  the  weather 
becomes  settled,  and  the  soil  warm,  crops  do  no  good. 

We  made  no  difference  in  the  time  of  planting  early  or  late 
cabbage,  and  our  ruta  bagas  were  sown  the  same  day  as  the  early 
white  varieties  of  turnips.  This  is  rendered  necessary  owing  to 
the  scanty  rain-fall  during  the  summer  months.  Seed  sown  after 
the  dry  weather  sets  in  do  not  always  germinate.  Peas  sown  the 
past  season  on  July  15th  did  not  come  up  until  the  fall  rains  came 
in  September.  These  conditions  leave  us  no  scope  for  rotation  of 
garden  crops. 

We  have  determined  a few  things  pretty  conclusively  the  past 
season. 

It  is  a waste  of  time  and  money  to  attempt  to  raise  such  plants 
as  Watermelons,  Muskmelons,  Peppers,  Egg  Plant,  and  even  To- 
matoes in  the  Palouse  region. 

A patch  of  Tomatoes  was  planted  from  seed  that  was  sown  in 
the  greenhouse  March  20th.  The  plants  were  first  transplanted 
into  flats,  later  they  were  potted,  and  finally  transplanted  into 
boxes  and  hardened  off.  When  planted  out  they  were  strong, 
stocky  plants,  showing  bloom  buds.  Even  with  this  treatment 
the  fruit  on  the  earlier  varieties  was  just  commencing  to  color 
when  the  frost  overtook  them. 

Squash,  though  nipped  a little  by  the  late  frosts  in  spring,  made 
a good  showing.  The  plants  grew  well  and  set  fruit  abundant^. 

The  complaint  usually  made  in  new  countries  of  a lack  of  in- 
sects to  pollinate  the  flowers,  certainly  does  not  hold  good  in  this 
part  of  Washington.  There  is  an  abundance  of  bumble  bees, 
and  wild  bees  are  innumerable,  besides  the  honey  bees  kept  on  the 
college  grounds,  and  every  pistilate  flower  seemed  to  set  its  fruit. 

The  season  was  not  long  enough  to  ripen  the  varieties  we  call 
“ winter  squash,”  but  for  the  summer  varieties,  such  as  the  Mar- 
rows, the  climate  is  well  adapted. 

Onions  grown  from  seed  sown  April  23d  made  a splendid  crop, 
but  the  bulbs  did  not  mature  before  the  fall  rains  came,  which 


Bulletin  19  — Vegetables 


5 


induced  a second  growth.  As  a consequence  most  of  the  Onions 
were  thick-necked  and  did  not  keep  well. 

Peas,  garden  varieties,  do  exceedingly  well  here,  the  conditions 
seem  about  right  for  producing  seed  of  the  finest  quality.  Sown 
in  spring  when  there  is  plenty  of  moisture  in  the  ground,  a cool 
climate  to  ripen  the  crop  slowly,  allowing  the  vine  to  bloom  fully, 
and  a perfect  season  in  which  to  harvest  the  crop,  and  very  little 
weevil.  It  seems  to  us  it  would  pay  seed  growers  to  turn  their 
attention  to  this  part  of  Washington  for  the  production  of  this 
particular  crop. 

Beans,  too,  of  the  earlier  kind  of  wax  and  white  Beans,  are  a 
successful  crop. 

Most  kinds  of  roots  do  very  well.  Beets,  Carrots,  Turnips  and 
Parsnips  all  produce  remarkable  crops. 

Potatoes  do  exceedingly  well  on  the  cool  north  hill  sides. 
Among  the  45  varieties  grown  here  this  year  there  was  not  a 
single  case  of  scab,  and  the  Colorado  beetle  is  unknown  here. 

Cabbage,  Cauliflower  and  Celery  require  more  moisture  than 
we  had  the  past  season  for  the  best  results. 

It  must  be  distinctly  understood  that  these  remarks  apply  only 
to  parts  of  Eastern  Washington  where  the  altitude  (2,500  feet) 
is  similar  to  that  of  the  Experiment  Station  at  Pullman.  As  a 
rule,  in  Eastern  Washington  the  lower  the  altitude  the  longer  the 
season,  and  a warmer  climate.  In  the  Snake  River  valley,  which 
is  16  miles  distant  from  Pullman,  their  strawberries  are  ripe  be- 
fore ours  are  in  bloom,  but  they  are  2,000  feet  lower.  There  they 
can  ripen  Black  Hamburg  and  Muscat  of  Alexandria  Grapes, 
while  it  is  somewThat  doubtful  if  we  up  here  can  produce  a bunch 
of  thoroughly  ripened  Grapes  even  on  the  hardiest  variety.  There 
are  valleys,  like  the  Walla  Walla  and  Yakima,  where  the  season 
is  long  enough  to  produce  the  tenderer  vegetables  and  melons  in 
perfection,  and  to  such  parts  of  Washington  these  remarks  will 
not  apply. 

In  a part  of  the  country  where  the  seasons  are  as  variable  as 
they  are  here,  it  cannot  be  expected  that  we  can  determine  the 
merits  or  demerits,  or  point  out  with  accuracy  the  usefulness  of  a 
particular  variety  from  one  season’s  trial.  In  1894  the  first  kill- 
ing frost  fell  on  October  3rd,  just  one  month  later  than  in  1895, 
giving  a month  longer  season  for  the  growth  of  tender  vegetation. 


6 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


With  a growing  season  of  the  same  duration  in  1895,  as  iu  i894> 
we  would  without  a doubt  have  had  ripe  Squash,  a crop  of  To- 
matoes, and  maybe  some  Cucumbers.  So  we  feel  that  to  give  the 
results  of  this  season’s  work  and  call  it  final,  would  be  all  wrong. 
Further  trial  is  necessary.  Notes  taken  this  season  will  be  valu- 
able for  later  reports. 

The  remarks  on  the  varieties  which  follow  may  be  regarded  as 
preliminary. 


CABBAGE. 

Nineteen  varieties  were  grown,  about  equally  divided  between 
early,  medium  and  late.  The  seed  of  all  varieties  was  sown  in  a 
gentle  hotbed  on  April  15th,  and  planted  out  May  24th.  Bach 
variety  occupied  a row  200  feet  long,  and  all  were  subject  to  the 
same  conditions.  The  soil  was  in  good  condition  as  regards  tilth 
and  moisture,  but  was  not  rich  enough  for  the  best  results  with 
cabbage.  It  is  a safe  rule  to  use  plenty  manure  on  all  garden 
crops  that  are  grown  for  their  foliage,  and  it  is  almost  impossible  to 
make  land  too  rich  for  the  Brassica  family. 

The  varieties  planted  were:  Luxemburg,  Hollander,  Stien 

Early  Flat  Dutch,  Henderson’s  Succession,  Fottlers  Improved 
Brunswick,  Early  Winningstadt,  Early  Jersey  Wakefield,  Im- 
proved Early  Summer,  Fine  Large  Flat  Dutch  (American  seed) , 
Fine  Large  Flat  Dutch  (imported  seed),  Extra  Earty  Express, 
Early  York,  Improved  Stone  Head,  Heavy  Red  Dutch,  All  Sea- 
sons, Large  Late  Drumhead,  American  Drumhead,  Green  Glazed, 
Mammoth  Rock  Red,  and  Summer  Savoy. 

All  made  satisfactory  growth  in  the  early  part  of  the  season. 
The  first  to  mature  was  Extra  Early  Express,  ready  July  nth, 
eighty  days  from  the  seed,  and  fifty-two  days  after  being 
planted  out.  It  is  a small,  heart-shaped  cabbage,  sure  header 
and  moderately  solid. 

Early  York,  and  Early  Jersey  Wakefield  were  four  or  five  days 
later.  The  Early  York  is  smaller  and  inferior  to  the  Early  Jersey 
Wakefield,  and  where  the  latter  is  grown,  Early  York  has  no 
place. 

Early  Winningstadt  was  the  next  to  mature,  about  a week 
later  than  the  two  last  mentioned,  and  is  by  all  odds  the  best 
early  heart-shaped  cabbage  for  the  farmer  or  cottager  to  grow  in 


Bulletin  19  — Vegetables 


7 


this  section  of  the  country.  It  is  larger  than  the  other  early 
varieties  mentioned,  and  has  the  good  quality  of  keeping  a long 
time  after  it  is  mature  or  headed.  In  an  ordinary  season  it  will 
keep  well  into  the  fall  without  bolting.  It  was  a good  cabbage 
the  past  season  long  after  the  three  varieties  mentioned  before  it 
had  run  to  seed. 

Of  the  summer  varieties,  Improved  Early  Summer,  and  Hen- 
derson’s Succession  can  be  recommended.  Both  are  cabbage  con- 
taining a large  per  cent,  of  Flat  Dutch  blood,  and  are  somewhat 
coarser  in  texture  than  the  heart-shaped  varieties;  they  keep  well 
into  the  fall  and  may  be  used  for  early  kraut. 

Amongst  the  late  or  winter  cabbage,  Large  Late  Drumhead  made 
by  far  the  best  showing.  A fine,  large  head,  distinct,  and  of 
good  quality,  few  outer  leaves  and  a short  stem. 

In  the  other  late  kinds,  Luxemburg,  Hollander,  Stein  Early 
Flat  Dutch,  Fottler’s  Improved  Brunswick  and  the  two  Flat 
Dutch  varieties,  I fail  to  see  any  distinguishing  characteristics, 
and  am  of  the  opinion  we  have  too  many  of  this  Flat  Dutch 
tribe. 

The  Green  Glazed  cabbage  mentioned  in  this  collection,  is  of 
little  utility,  but  is  quite  ornamental. 

During  the  month  of  August,  when  not  a drop  of  rain  fell,  all 
varieties  of  cabbage  seemed  to  suffer;  we  have  no  means  of  irri- 
gating and  rely  entirely  on  the  rainfall. 

The  cabbage  aphis,  (Aphis  Brassica ) apeared  in  great  numbers 
during  the  drouth,  but  the  crop  was  too  far  advanced  to  be  much 
affected  by  them.  When  a few  liberal  showers  fell  during  the 
early  part  of  September,  the  cabbage  were  stimulated  to  a new 
growth,  and  the  consequence  was  numerous  bursted  heads.  Fully 
one-half  of  the  late  varieties  were  lost  owing  to  this  defect.  All 
sound  heads  were  harvested  on  the  10th  and  nth  of  November 
and  placed  in  a root  cellar.  The  red  varieties  were  placed  by 
themselves  to  be  used  for  making  pickles. 

TO  KEEP  CABBAGE  IN  WINTER. 

Care  must  be  taken  to  avoid  heating.  Don’t  put  cabbage  in 
large  piles,  nor  many  in  a pit. 

If  the  soil  be  sandy  and  porous,  pull  the  cabbage  at  the  ap- 
proach of  winter,  and  turn  them  upside  down  upon  the  level 


8 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


ground  in  rows  two  or  three  deep.  As  the  winter  advances  cover 
slightly  with  soil,  or  trim  off  outer  leaves  and  remove  to  a cool 
cellar  and  lay  thinly  on  the  floor,  or  on  shelves,  or  hang  them  up 
to  the  roof.  Some  people  prefer  to  bury  them  in  pits  like  pota- 
toes. This  answers  very  well  if  few  are  put  in  a pit  to  avoid  heat- 
ing. In  keeping  cabbage  a dry  atmosphere  ought  to  be  avoided 
or  the  cabbage  will  shrivel. 

ONIONS. 

On  the  2 2d  of  April  twenty-two  varieties  of  onions  were  sown, 
one  row  of  each,  200  feet  long.  The  ground  was  plowed,  dragged 
and  harrowed,  and  presented  a very  even  surface.  No  manure  or 
other  fertilizer  was  used.  The  seed  was  all  from  one  seedsman, 
J.  M.  Thorburn  & Co.,  New  York,  and  proved  fresh,  as  all 
vari ties  germinated  well.  The  kinds  sown  were,  Yellow  Globe 
Spanish,  Yellow  Globe,  Flat  Maderia,  White  Flat  Bermuda, 
Giant  White  Garganus,  Yellow  Globe  Denvers,  Giant  White 
Tripoli,  Red  Bermuda,  English  White  Pickling,  Thorburn’s 
Excelsior  White  Pickling,  Yellow  Danvers,  Mammoth  Red  Gar- 
gamus,  Globe  Maderia,  Giant  Rocca  Red,  Giant  Rocca  Yellow, 
Red  Globe,  Large  Red  Weathersfield,  Yellow  Strasburg,  Early 
Red  Flat,  New  Gigantic  Gibraltar,  Egyptian  and  White  Barletta. 
With  the  exception  of  the  two  pickling  varieties  and  the  Egyptian, 
none  of  the  onions  were  ripe  at  the  time  they  were  pulled,  October 
19th. 

An  onion  may  be  said  to  be  ripe  when  the  top  falls  over,  and 
the  bulb  is  well  developed.  Most  varieties  grew  well  and  formed 
good-sized  bulbs,  but  there  was  a very  large  per  cent,  of  “thick 
necks  ’ 5 amongst  them.  This  feature  was  not  confined  to  any 
particular  variety,  for  all  the  kinds  planted  were  affected  by  it, 
for  fully  sixty  per  cent,  of  all  bulbs  lifted  were  ‘ ‘thick  necks.  ’ ’ All 
through  the  dry  season  there  was  no  wilting  or  stoppage  of 
growth,  but  there  was  evident  stimulation  to  extra  growth  when 
the  fall  rains  came.  At  the  time  of  pulling  we  had  no  oppor- 
tunity to  harvest  them  properly,  by  drying  them  on  the  ground 
in  the  sunshine.  The  nights  were  quite  frosty,  and  the  soil 
cool  and  damp,  so  inside  drying  had  to  be  resorted  to.  We  do 
not  consider  the  trial  a satisfactory  one,  and  the  coming  season 
will  try  a different  method. 


Bulletin  19  — Vegetables 


9 


What  is  known  as  “the  New  Onion  culture”  may  answer 
here.  This  is  simply  to  sow  the  seed  in  a gentle  hotbed  early 
enough  in  the  season,  so  that  at  the  earliest  moment  the  ground 
can  be  worked,  the  young  onions  may  be  planted  out,  i.  e., 
transplanted  from  the  hotbed  to  the  open  ground.  This  is  in 
reality  no  extra  work,  for  one  can  plant  a row  of  onions  more 
quickly  than  he  can  thin  the  same  row,  and  moreover  it  is  a sav- 
ing of  seed. 

Notes  were  taken  this  season  on  the  habit  of  growth,  size  and 
shape  of  bulb,  and  each  variety  was  weighed  at  the  time  of 
lifting. 

Flat  Maderia,  Yellow  Globe  Denvers,  Mammoth  Red  Garganus, 
Giant  Rocco  Yellow,  Yellow  Strasburg,  and  Large  Red  Weathers- 
field  gave  the  best  results  in  size,  quality  and  productiveness. 

Red  Globe,  from  the  fact  that  it  ripens  early  and  yields  a uni- 
form, medium-sized  bulb,  is  a good  onion  to  grow  for  family  use 
in  this  upper  country. 

Of  the  pickling  varieties,  English  White  made  the  most  uni- 
form, small  white  bulbs. 

Egyptian,  a new  variety,  is  too  small  to  find  a place  amongst 
good  onions. 


PEAS. 

Bulletin  10  of  this  station  gives  results  of  a varietal  test  of 
peas,  twenty-six  varieties  being  described.  Six  new  varieties 
were  grown  the  past  season.  None  of  them  have  been  reported 
on  before  from  this  station. 

Two  varieties,  Renown  and  Echo,  were  sent  in  by  W.  Atlee 
Burpee  & Co.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Four  varieties  came  from  the  Agricultural  Department,  Wash- 
ington, D.  C. 

Renown. — This  new  variety  is  a late  season  pea  with  a large 
pod  containing  nine  or  ten  peas,  grows  a long  vine  and  needs 
stalking.  It  promises  well  and  will  be  tried  further. 

Echo. — Pod  large  to  very  large,  slow  to  fill,  and  very  late,  is 
valuable  on  this  account;  straw  long,  not  such  a good  producer 
as  Renown.  A good  pea. 

Dwarf  Champion. — This  is  probably  only  a half  dwarf,  pro- 


to 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


duces  well,  pods  larger  than  is  usual  on  dwarfs;  six  to  eight  peas 
in  a pod.  Mid-season. 

Melting  Sugar. — A wrinkled  pea,  very  much  resembles  Hen- 
derson’s Midsummer,  moderately  productive. 

Bishop' s Long  Podded. — -This  pea  was  very  late,  with  a large 
pod  that  does  not  fill  well;  sown  the  same  date  as  the  others, 
April  23.  It  remained  green  and  fit  for  table  longer  than  any 
pea  we  grew  this  season. 

Sterlmg. — A pea  of  no  particular  merit;  comes  in  at  mid- 
season when  lots  of  good  peas  are  ready. 

CAULIFLOWER  AND  BROCCOLI. 

To  the  ordinary  observer,  there  is  no  greater  difference  between 
a cauliflower  and  a broccoli  than  between  a plum  and  a prune. 
Botanists  disagree  about  the  origin  of  these  two  forms,  some  claim 
the  same  ancestry  for  both,  while  others  refer  them  to  two  dis- 
tinct species.  For  all  practical  purposes  they  might  well  bear  the 
same  name.  Old  gardeners  recognize  the  broccoli  as  a fall  or 
winter  variety  of  cauliflower.  In  our  day  we  have  early  and  late 
broccoli  as  well  as  cauliflower.  Of  all  the  crops  a gardner  grows 
none  respond  so  quickly  to  liberal  treatment  as  do  cauliflower.  To 
grow  good  cauliflower  it  is  absolutely  necessary  that  the  ground 
be  rich,  deep  and  moist,  and  if  the  plants  can  be  shaded  from  the 
hot  noonday  sun  it  will  be  a benefit.  Out  of  ten  varieties  of 
cauliflower  and  broccoli  grown  on  the  station  this  year,  only  one 
was  a complete  failure,  viz.,  the  Early  Purple  Cape;  it  is  a poor 
color  for  market  and  with  us  bolted  into  bloom  without  forming 
heads.  The  White  Cape  Broccoli  also  went  largely  to  seed  with- 
out forming  heads;  both  these  varieties  probably  require  a cooler, 
moister  climate  than  we  have  here.  Of  the  other  varieties,  Large 
Early  London,  Burpee’s  Best  Early,  Walcheren,  Thorburn’s  Gilt 
Edge,  Veitches’  Autumn  Giant,  Thorburn’s  Extra  Early  Dwarf, 
Large  Algiers,  Thorburn’s  Nonpareil. 

The  honors  are  evenly  divided  between  Thorburn’s  Gilt  Edge 
and  Burpee’s  Best  Early.  The  field  notes  taken  of  the  former 
variety  read:  Remarkably  good,  medium  early,  dwarf,  fine  heads, 
solid,  close  grained,  pure  white. 

The  description  of  Burpee’s  best  early  is  very  good;  dwarf  and 
flat,  dense  head,  and  though  somewhat  flaring  it  retains  its  pure 


Bulletin  ig  — Vegetables 


II 


white  color  even  when  exposed  to  the  bright  sunrays.  The  season 
was  too  short  for  Vedettes’  autumn  giant,  and  Walcheren. 

Iyondon  early  and  large  Algiers  produced  some  fine  heads.  The 
season  was  altogether  too  dry  for  the  best  results  with  cauliflower. 
With  the  right  soil  conditions  and  a little  more  rainfall,  we  can 
without  a doubt  produce  fine  cauliflower  here. 

CKiyKRY. 

Ten  varieties  were  sown  in  hotbeds  about  the  middle  of  April, 
composed  of  tall,  dwarf,  and  white  plumed  kinds.  They  made 
very  slow  progress,  and  in  due  time  were  planted  out  in  trenches, 
two  rows  in  a trench.  The  ground  was  very  dry  at  time  of  plant- 
ing, and  remained  so  except  that  the  plants  were  thoroughly 
watered  after  setting.  A couple  of  hundred  plants  were  within 
reach  of  a hose  attached  to  a half  inch  pipe,  and  these  were  sprink- 
led frequently.  The  bulk  of  plants  got  no  water  after  planting 
and  every  plant  outside  of  the  water  line  died  inside  of  four  weeks 
from  the  time  of  planting.  The  plants  that  received  water  grew 
very  slowly,  and  in  the  fall  when  celery  ought  to  be  ready  to  re- 
ceive its  last  earthing,  the  best  plants  were  about  fifteen  inches 
high,  and  of  course  not  good  for  market.  People  who  attempt  to 
grow  celery  should  remember  that  the  plant  is  a semi-aquatic,  con- 
sequently requires  much  water,  and  being  a gross  feeder  needs  a 
liberal  supply  of  manure. 

A great  deal  of  our  best  celery  has  been  sacrificed  by  growing 
the  white  plumed  self-bleaching  sorts,  to  the  neglect  of  better  va- 
rieties that  require  more  work.  To  have  celery  of  the  finest 
quality,  tender  and  crisp,  and  of  fine  nutty  flavor,  it  must  be 
bleached  in  contact  with  the  earth.  The  white  foliage  kinds  are 
as  a rule  flavorless  and  pithy. 

SUGAR  CORN. 

Six  varieties  were  planted  on  April  24th,  one  quart  of  seed  of 
each,  rows  four  feet  apart,  hills  thirty  inches  apart.  The  varieties 
were:  Country  Gentleman,  Early  Marblehead,  Early  Eight- 

rowed,  Stowell’s  Evergreen,  Early  Adams,  Moor’s  Early  Concord. 
Of  these  six  varieties,  not  one  produced  an  ear  of  corn  fit  for  the 
table  except  Stowell’s  Evergreen,  and  it  produced  about  one- 
fourth  of  a crop  of  very  inferior  ears. 


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Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


From  the  above  we  gather  that  sweet  corn  will  succeed  here 
only  when  the  season  is  favorable. 

In  1894  some  of  these  same  varieties  sown  a week  later  than  in 
1895  produced  a full  crop  of  fine  roasting  ears,  and  even  ripened 
seed.  But  the  seasons  were  very  dissimilar.  Frequent  showers 
and  warm  weather  early  in  the  season  of  1894  made  it  a superior 
growing  season. 


LIMA  BEANS 

Were  almost  a total  failure;  they  did  not  grow  tall  enough  to 
need  poles,  and  few  of  the  vines  produced  pods.  Two  varieties 
were  grown,  Dreer’s  Fima  and  Early  Jersey  Lima.  We  may  ex- 
pect a more  favorable  season  sometime,  and  will  try  them  again. 
Fima  Beans  belong  to  warmer  countries  and  are  not  in  their  ele- 
ment this  far  north.  Many  kinds  of  beans  do  well  here.  A great 
variety  is  grown  in  the  United  States;  the  larger  portion  of  them 
belongs  to  the  family  commonly  known  as  wax  or  French  kidney 
beans,  often  called  Bush  beans.  Our  commercial  varieties,  those 
sold  in  a dry  state  and  used  as  a vegetable,  such  as  the  Navy, 
small  white,  Bayo,  and  others,  generally  belong  to  the  Haricot  or 
common  kidney  bean. 

In  the  vicinity  of  Pullman  a considerable  acreage  is  devoted  to 
the  cultivation  of  these  dry  beans.  In  a favorable  season  the 
profits  from  an  acre  of  white  beans  is  quite  large  as  compared 
with  wheat.  A small  package  each  of  four  varieties  of  these 
commercial  beans  were  sent  to  the  Station  the  past  spring  by  Du- 
tard,  of  San  Francisco.  These  were  Pinks,  Fady  Washington, 
Bayo  and  small  whites.  All  were  sown  in  the  garden  the  last 
week  in  April,  and  each  variety  ripened  its  seed  perfectly.  Ex- 
periments on  a large  scale  will  be  carried  out  with  these  commer- 
cial varieties  to  determine  productiveness,  adaptability,  etc. 

The  wax,  or  snap,  beans  are  a great  success  here,  producing 
large  quantities  of  pods  that  retain  their  tenderness  for  a consider- 
able period. 

The  Broad  Bean  ( Fata  vulgaris ),  sometimes  called  English 
Broad  Bean,  does  very  well  here.  A short  row  of  this  variety  the 
past  season  produced  a quantity  of  well  filled  pods.  In  eating 
this  bean  only  the  seed  is  used.  Shell  like  peas  when  the  pods 
are  well  filled,  and  boil  like  peas.  It  is  a very  desirable  vegetable. 


Bulletin  19  — Vegetables 


13 


CARDOON 

Cardoon. — Cynara  Carduneulus  probably  does  not  differ  from 
the  Globe  Artichoke,  Cynara  Scholymus  of  botanists.  A silvery, 
gray-colored  plant  with  much  divided  leaves,  which  in  their 
young  stage  are  tied  in  bunches  on  the  gowing  plant  until  the 
leaves  on  the  inside  are  blanched.  They  are  then  used  as  salad 
under  the  name  of  Cardoon.  The  same  plant  allowed  to  flower 
is  called  Globe  Artichoke,  and  the  base  of  the  fleshy  scales  cov- 
ering the  unopened  flower  are  used  as  a vegetable.  It  grows  well 
here.  To  get  the  best  results,  Globe  Artichokes  ought  to  be 
banked  round  with  manure  in  the  fall.  This  is  for  protection  as 
well  as  to  stimulate  the  plant.  For  salad,  it  is  best  to  sow  the 
seed  each  spring. 

LENTIL. 

A quart  of  seed  was  planted,  which  made  a satisfactory  growth 
and  produced  an  abundance  of  seed.  We  do  not  seem  to  have 
much  use  for  this  old  vegetable  in  our  day.  Beans,  peas,  rice 
and  other  dried  vegetables  have  driven  the  Lentil  to  the  wall. 

BEETS 

Are  a good  crop  here,  though  the  severe  drouth  of  the  past  sum- 
mer influenced  the  size  of  the  roots.  Five  varieties  of  garden 
beet  and  seven  varieties  of  sugar  beet  were  grown  on  the  trial 
grounds.  The  garden  varieties  were:  Early  Blood  Turnip,  Ex- 

tra Early  Dark  Egyptian,  Dark  Stinson,  Dewing’s  Blood  Turnip, 
Crosby’s  Egyptian. 

The  criterion  of  a good  garden  beet  is  not  size  and  quantity, 
but  color,  earliness  and  table  qualities. 

Extra  Early  Dark  Egyptian  was  first  ready.  The  roots  are  of  fair 
size,  good  color  and  a very  small  top.  Consequently,  it  can  be 
grown  closer  than  some  varieties. 

Crosby s Egyptian  (U.  S.  G.)— Not  quite  so  early  as  the  pre- 
ceding variety,  but  gives  a large  root,  of  good  quality  and  has  all 
the  marks  of  a good  beet. 

Dark  Stinson . — A small  trial  package  of  seed  from  Burpee, 
produced  a few  nice  roots  and  is  worthy  of  further  trial.  All 
garden  varieties  of  beet  were  grown  in  rows  four  feet  apart  and 
cultivated  by  horse. 


H 


* Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


SUGAR  BEETS 

Were  planted  in  rows  twenty  inches  apart  and  cultivated  by 
hand.  Owing  to  the  dry  weather  the  roots  on  sugar  beets  were 
very  small  this  season,  too  small  for  the  best  results  as  sugar  pro- 
ducers. Previous  experiments  with  sugar  beets  on  the  same 
grounds  have  yielded  very  satisfactory  results. 

SPINACH. 

Two  varieties  were  grown,  Round  Flanders  and  New  Zealand. 
The  latter  a very  distinct  variety.  It  grew  through  the  hot,  dry 
summer  without  showing  signs  of  going  to  seed,  a very  desirable 
quality.  It  is  somewhat  inferior  in  table  qualities  to  the  round 
varieties.  Round  Flanders  had  run  to  seed  by  the  middle  of 
July. 

CARROTS 

Thrive  best  in  a rich  sandy  loam,  though  almost  any  good  soil 
will  grow  carrots  profitably.  As  a rule,  the  stump-rooted  or  half- 
long  kinds  are  most  sought  after  for  culinary  purposes,  while  the 
long,  gross  growing  carrots  are  usually  fed  to  stock.  The  garden 
varieties  have  usually  a smaller  core  and  are  less  woody  in 
texture. 

A few  varieties  of  each  kind  were  grown,  viz.,  Mastodon, 
Parisian  Button,  Saint  Valery,  Improved  Luc,  Improved  Long 
Orange,  Yellow  Belgin,  New  Forcing,  Half  Long  Chantenay, 
Carentan,  Denver’s  New  Half  Long  Luc. 

Among  the  garden  varieties  Carentan,  a Iftnd  that  is  practically 
coreless,  flesh  red,  and  of  fine  quality,  roots  uniform  and  a good 
croper,  gave  the  best  results,  425  pounds  of  roots  from  one  ounce 
of  seed. 

Half  Long  Chantenay  was  a good  second  with  403  pounds  of 
roots.  It  was  rather  surprising  to  find  these  half-long  carrots 
yielded  a greater  weight  of  roots  than  the  long,  deep-rooting  kinds 
usually  grown  for  stock.  This  may  be  mainly  owing  to  the  fact 
that  in  digging  the  long  roots,  a portion  of  the  root  is  often  left 
in  the  ground. 

Further  experiments  will  be  carried  out  along  this  line,  to  de- 
termine which  are  most  profitable  to  grow. 

Of  the  big  carrots,  Improved  Long  Orange  (Henderson) , gave 
the  greatest  yield. 


Bulletin  19  — Vegetables 


15 


TURNIPS. 

Only  a few  varieties  were  grown,  some  kinds  stood  the  drouth 
of  summer  better  than  others.  The  earlier  kinds  retained  their 
tenderness  late  into  summer  and  grew  to  a large  size.  There  was 
almost  a total  absence  of  the  little  black  flea  beetle  the  past 
spring.  A fungus  growth  or  mildew  affected  the  late  varieties. 
The  kinds  grown  were  Long  White  Tankard,  Gray  Stone, 
Laing’s  Purple  Top  Ruta  Baga,  Early  Flat  Dutch,  Early  Snow- 
ball, New  Kashmyr  (Burpee),  Long  White  French. 

Early  Snowball  was  first  ready  for  use,  and  remained  tender 
well  into  summer. 

Of  the  late  kinds  Long  White  Tankard  is  a good  turnip,  it 
stood  the  drouth  well  and  was  a good  turnip  in  the  kitchen  at  the 
end  of  October.  The  Ruta  Bagas  lost  most  of  their  foliage  dur- 
ing the  drouth,  but  made  a new  growth  after  the  fall  rains  came. 
This  second  growth  injured  the  quality  of  the  roots. 

OKRA 

Was  a complete  failure  here.  It  requires  more  heat  and  a 
longer  season.  Three  varieties  were  planted,  New  Dwarf  Density, 
White  velvet  and  Ladies  Finger.  The  best  growth  on  any  variety 
was  nine  inches,  and  one  pod  the  most  any  plant  bore. 

LEEK 

This  pot  vegetable  which  belongs  to  the  same  family  as  the 
onion,  requires  a cool,  moist,  rich  soil.  The  one  variety  planted 
here  the  past  season  made  a good  growth  and  is  suited  to  the 
climate.  The  blanched  part  of  the  plant,  that  portion  found 
below  the  surface  of  the  ground,  is  used  in  soups. 

KOHL  RABI 

Is  quite  satisfactory  here — sometimes  called  turnip  rooted  cab- 
bage, from  the  fact  that  it  partakes  somewhat  of  the  nature  of 
each  in  form  and  flavor.  A short  row  yielded  some  good  bulbs. 

radish. 

The  early  season  varieties,  both  turnip-rooted  and  long  kinds, 
are  very  satisfactory  here,  the  roots  retaining  their  crispness  over 
an  extended  season.  On  the  contrary,  the  large  rooted  winter 
varieties  were  almost  a total  failure,  giving  very  poor  results. 


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Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


As  our  garden  ground  becomes  better  prepared  and  fitted  to  grow 
vegetables  of  the  highest  order,  these  crops  will  be  tried  again. 

RHUBARB. 

The  seed  of  three  varieties  was  sown,  but  not  a plant  appeared. 
The  usual  method  of  getting  a start  of  this  vegetable  is  to  buy 
the  roots,  which  are  easily  divided  and  bear  transplanting  well. 
It  needs  a cool,  moist  situation  and  heavy  top-dressing  annually 
with  cow  manure. 

PARSUEY 

Does  remarkabl3r  well  here,  growing  through  the  dry  season  and 
producing  large  quantities  of  its  beautiful  curled  foliage.  A patch 
ought  to  be  sown  every  year,  as  the  plant  is  a biennial,  i.  e .,  goes 
to  seed  the  second  year  and  dies. 

CHICKORY 

Is  a very  satisfactory  crop  here.  A short  row  of  it  produced  many 
large  roots.  It  is  possible  that  this  will  be  a profitable  crop  in 
many  parts  of  Washington. 

Of  the  many  herbs  sown  here  the  past  season,  Dandelion,  Sage, 
Coriander,  Saffron  and  Tansy,  all  made  good  growth.  Many 
varieties  did  not  germinate,  probably  owing  to  the  poor  quality  of 
the  seed.  These  will  be  tried  again. 

SQUASH. 

Fourteen  varieties  were  planted  on  a, north  hill  side  in  good 
soil.  Each  variety  occupied  a row  60  feet  long,  rows  6 feet  apart, 
and  hills  from  4 to  7 feet,  according  to  the  habit  of  the  plant. 
The  seed  was  planted  the  last  week  in  April,  and  without  excep- 
tion came  up  well.  A frost  on  the  2 2d  of  May  nipped  the  tender 
foliage  of  some  varieties,  but  did  little  damage.  They  grew  rap- 
idly and  soon  covered  the  ground.  Those  planted  were,  White 
Bush  Scalloped,  Valparaiso,  Early  Prolific  Marrow,  Low  Bay 
State,  Eow  Bush  Summer  Crooknecked,  Fordhook,  Butman,  Co- 
coanut,  Boston  Marrow,  Mammoth  Bush  Summer,  Perfect  Gem, 
Extra  Early  Orange  Marrow,  Pike’s  Peak  and  Silver  Custard. 
The  growing  season  was  too  short  for  the  class  we  call  “ Winter 
Squash.”  After  the  first  killing  frost  in  the  fall  the  fruit  was 
gathered  and  carried  to  a dry  cellar.  Within  a month  decay  had 


Bulletin  19  — Vegetables 


set  in  on  all  varieties  except  Pikes  Peak,  a few  of  which  kept  sev- 
eral weeks  later.  Extra  Early  Orange  Marrow  was  first  ready 
for  use.  The  varieties  Boston  Marrow  and  Early  Prolific  Marrow 
seemed  to  us  identical.  The  Marrows,  as  a rule,  make  large 
vines,  and  are  best  for  table  when  quite  young. 

The  bush  varieties  occupy  less  room  in  the  garden  than  the 
marrows,  and  as  most  of  them  are  quite  prolific,  we  would  recom- 
mend them  for  small  gardens. 

BRUSSELS  SPROUTS. 

This  is  one  of  the  Brassica  family,  filling  a place  at  a season 
of  the  year  when  green  vegetables  are  at  a premium.  It  is  a late 
fall  and  winter  vegetable.  Minature  cabbages  grow  on  a stalk 
with  a tuft  of  leaves  on  top.  In  severe  weather  these  top  tufts 
hang  down  over  the  little  cabbages  on  the  stalk  and  protect  them 
from  the  weather.  A very  desirable  vegetable  that  ought  to  be 
more  largely  grown.  It  promises  to  do  well  here. 

LETTUCE 

Was  largely  grown,  mostly  from  home-saved  seed.  In  the  green- 
house, where  the  early  crops  were  grown,  Black  Seeded  Simpson 
made  the  best  showing.  It  is  a crinkley  foliaged  variety,  and 
does  not  heart  readily,  but  makes  a great  amount  of  leaves  and  is  of 
good  quality.  For  summer  use,  the  varieties  that  head  like  cab- 
bage will  be  found  the  most  desirable.  A variety  named  Market 
Gardner’s  Private  Stock  (Thorburn),  stood  the  summer’s  sun  a 
long  time  before  bursting,  and  in  this  respect  was  the  best  variety 
we  grew. 

TOMATOES. 

This  experiment  was  carried  out  under  unfavorable  climatic 
conditions,  and  gives  no  clew  to  the  merits  of  the  varieties  under 
test.  Fifteen  varieties  were  planted  on  a southern  exposure. 
The  plants  were  started  in  the  greenhouse  at  two  sowings,  one 
March  20th  and  another  April  4th.  The  plants  were  transplanted 
three  times  before  putting  them  outside,  and  were  in  excellent 
condition;  they  had  not  been  allowed  to  become  woody.  After 
planting,  there  came  a succession  of  cold  winds,  wdiich  terminated 
in  a sharp  frost  (the  same  that  injured  the  squash),  which  checked 
their  growth  considerably.  The  varieties  were:  Golden  Sunrise, 


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Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


Livingston’s  Beauty,  Optimus,  Tree,  Ignotum,  Livingston’s 
Favorite,  Yellow  Cherry,  Yellow  Plum,  Queen,  Trophy,  New 
Peach,  Peach,  The  Shah,  Ponderosa,  Fordhook.  Fifteen  plants 
of  each  variety  were  used,  and  all  planted  the  same  day,  May 
13th.  The  growth  was  satisfactory,  though  slow,  and  all 
varieties  set  fruit  very  heavily.  The  frost  that  fell  September  3d, 
stopped  all  growth,  just  as  the  fruit  on  the  earlier  kinds  was  com- 
mencing to  color. 

Golden  Sunrise  has  all  the  qualities  of  the  best  red  kinds;  is 
large,  of  a golden  yellow  color,  and  nice  size  for  slicing.  This 
variety  and  Ignotum  were  first  to  ripen.  The  small  yellow  varie- 
ties, Yellow  Cherry  and  Yellow  Plum,  produced  large  quantities 
of  small-sized  fruit,  suitable  for  making  preserves. 

Water  Melons,  Musk  Melons  and  Egg  Plants,  were  given  a 
trial  on  a favored  exposure.  They  made  very  poor  growth  and 
the  frost  caught  them  before  the  fruit  was  half  grown.  Our  cli- 
mate is  too  cold  and  seasons  too  short  to  successfully  grow  this 
class  of  plant. 

TOBACCO 

Was  tried  on  a plot  of  ground  near  the  greenhouse.  The  growth 
was  slow  and  the  leaves  short  and  were  badly  eaten  by  grass- 
hoppers. 

POTATOES. 

An  experiment  is  commenced  with  potatoes  and  will  continue 
three  seasons.  The  past  year  we  planted  forty-five  varieties,  ten 
pounds  of  seed  of  each,  all  cut  to  two  eyes.  Notes  were  taken  on 
the  growth,  time  of  ripening,  table  qualities,  etc.,  and  each  vari- 
ety was  weighed  at  the  time  of  lifting,  and  also  after  the  small 
potatoes  had  been  separated  from  the  larger  ones.  The  yield  was 
excellent,  averaging  twenty-five  pounds  of  tubers  for  every 
pound  of  seed  planted.  As  this  experiment  will  be  the  subject 
of  a special  bulletin  we  will  not  go  into  details  at  present. 


CARE  OF  THE  GARDEN 


A few  years  ago,  the  late  Peter  Henderson  in  his  work,  “ Gar- 
dening for  Profit,”  strongly  advocated  the  use  of  the  feet  in  firm- 
ing the  soil  after  planting  seed.  This  practice  is  very  generally 
followed  today,  and  was  before  Mr.  Henderson’s  day,  by  old 
Scotch  gardeners,  and  on  light,  sandy,  porous  soils,  it  is  an  ex- 
cellent plan  to  practice.  On  the  soil  at  Pullman,  this  tramping 
with  the  feet  gives  the  reverse  of  good  results.  On  rows  of  peas 
where  we  had  tramped  carefully,  it  was  found  that  the  soil  had 
become  baked  into  hard  lumps,  and  all  during  the  season,  when- 
ever the  cultivator  got  too  near  a row  of  plants,  it  was  likely  to 
tear  up  a chunk  of  soil,  bringing  with  it  a section  of  the  row  of 
plants,  while  the  soil  between  the  rows  was  in  a mellow  condition. 
The  soil  at  planting  time  was  not  wet— just  moist.  We  are  con- 
vinced the  practice  of  tramping  in  seeds  is  wrong,  as  far  as  the 
soil  on  the  station  is  concerned,  and  will  discontinue  it. 

Vegetable  gardens  had  better  be  plowed  in  the  fall.  Of  course 
this  refers  to  ground  already  cleared  of  its  crop.  There  is  no 
agent  known  equal  to  frost  as  a meliorator  of  the  soil,  and  to  take 
full  advantage  of  this,  gardens  ought  to  be  plowed  or  spaded  up 
in  the  fall,  and  the  land  left  with  as  rough  a surface  as  possible; 
the  idea  is  to  expose  the  greatest  surface  to  the  elements.  The 
action  of  the  frost  is  to  disintegrate,  to  break  up  and  let  loose 
particles  of  matter  which  soon  become  available  as  plant  food. 
I would  sooner  have  a piece  of  land  plowed  in  the  fall  and  left  to 
the  winter  elements,  than  the  same  land  plowed  in  spring  for  pur- 
poses of  gardening.  L,and  that  has  been  plowed  in  the  fall  and 
left  as  rough  as  possible  will  be  found  to  break  down  easily  to  a 
fine  surface,  and  be  in  condition  to  plant  several  days  before  land 
that  is  plowed  in  the  spring.  For  all  vegetable  crops  grown  for 
their  foliage,  like  lettuce,  cabbage,  spinach,  etc.,  land  cannot  well 
be  too  rich. 

Peas,  beans,  and  some  kinds  of  roots  may  be  grown  well  with 
less  manure.  Vegetables  of  the  finest  quality,  quickly  grown, 


20 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


crisp,  tender,  and  juicy,  cannot  be  produced  without  large  quanti- 
ties of  fertilizer,  and  there  is  none  better  than  partially  decom- 
posed barn  yard  manure. 


CULTIVATION. 

As  soon  as  the  crops  are  visible  in  early  summer,  the  cultivator 
ought  to  commence  to  run,  and  be  continued  every  ten  days  01 
two  weeks  until  the  crop  is  matured. 

On  soils  that  have  a tendency  to  bake,  the  cultivator  ought  to 
run  through  after  every  shower,  also  after  irrigating. 


WASHINGTON  STATE  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE  AND 
SCHOOL  OF  SCIENCE 


Experiment  Station 

<* 

PULLMAN,  WASHINGTON 


Bulletin  20 


All  bulletins  of  this  station  sent  free  to  citizens  of  the  state 
on  application  to  the  Director. 


FIBRE  FLAX  IN  WASHINGTON 

By  Dr.  A.  W.  Thornton 
Special  Agent  for  the  Investigation  of  Fibre  Flax 

1896 


THE  CALVERT  CO.,  716  FIRST  AVE.,  SEATTLE 


THE  AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 

BOARD  OF  CONTROL. 


T.  R.  Tannatt,  President , Farmington 

J.  W.  Stearns,  Treasurer , Tekoa 

E.  S.  Ingraham,  Vice  President , --------  Seattle 

H.  S.  Beandford, Walla  Walla 

J.  W.  Arrasmith, Colfax 

STATION  STAFF. 

Enoch  A.  Bryan,  ----- Director 

W.  J.  Spieeman,  - ---------  Agriculturist 

C.  V.  Piper,  - - -----  Botanist  and  Entomologist 

Eeton  Fuemer,  - -----------  Chemist 

John  A.  Baemer, Horticulturist 

Cearence  C.  FeETCher, Assistant  Chemist 


FIBRE  FLAX  IN  WASHINGTON 


By  Dr.  A.  W.  THORNTON 


Flax  culture,  owing  to  the  distinctive  character  of  the  Flax  plant,  and 
the  different  purposes  to  which  its  products  are  applied,  requires  important 
modifications  that  the  general  farmer  is  unfamiliar  with.  This  Bulletin  is, 
therefore,  intended  to  set  forth  in  plain  language  simple  instructions  that 
will  enable  the  ordinary  farmer  to  grow  Flax  intelligently  and  successfully. 
I will,  therefore,  in  order  to  condense  the  subject  to  strictly  cultural  instruc- 
tions, refrain  at  this  time  from  any  consideration  of  a number  of  interesting 
technical  details,  which  would  extend  this  Bulletin  beyond  the  limits  at  my 
disposal.  As,  however,  in  this  State  we  have  citizens  from  flax-growing 
sections  of  Europe  who  are  familiar  with  the  practice  adopted  in  their  own 
country  for  the  culture  and  preparation  of  Flax,  and  as  the  practice  differs 
greatly  in  material  details  in  Ireland,  Belgium,  Holland,  Prussia,  Russia, 
France,  and  among  the  Scandinavians  — all  differ  more  or  less,  while  each 
considers  his  own  practice  the  best,  and  not  only  so,  but  that  the  others 
are  all  wrong! — I cannot  hope,  nor  will  I endeavor  to  escape  cavil  and  ad- 
verse criticism,  merely  stating  broadly  that  the  local  conditions  in  this 
portion  of  the  United  States  are  so  different  from  those  existing  in  Europe, 
that  an  entirely  different  system  of  practice  is  required,  and  we  require, 
not  to  Europeanize  the  American , but  to  Americanize  the  European  system , 
and  for  that  purpose  this  Bulletin  is  prepared. 

The  first  thing  that  will  strike  the  observant  farmer  in  examining  the 
Flax  plant  and  observing  its  habit  of  growth,  is  that  unlike  Wheat,  Oats,  or 
any  of  the  grasses,  which  develop  a vast  number  of  fine  fibrous  roots  near 
the  surface,  from  whence  they  derive  their  nourishment,  the  Flax  plant 
sends  down  to  the  subsoil  a single  long  tap  root,  with  only  a few  very  fine 
fibres,  and  instead  of  stooling  out,  sends  up  only  one  long,  straight  stem, 
branching  out  only  after  attaining  a considerable  height.  This  preliminary 
observation  furnishes  us  with  a clue,  by  which  we  are  enabled  to  regulate 
our  management  of  the  crop  with  intelilgence  and  success.  Having 
attained  a knowledge  of  the  habit  of  growth  of  the  plant,  it  becomes 
necessary  to  inform  ourselves  of  its  requirements,  and  then  of  the  uses  for 
which  it  is  required. 

The  requirements  of  the  Flax  plant  are  a moderately  fertile  soil  — such 
as  will  produce  good  grain  crops  — a cool,  moist,  equable  climate;  a deep, 
clean,  well  tilled  seed  bed,  with  early  sowing,  and  while  it  requires  about 
the  same  amount  of  plant  food  that  a fair  crop  of  Wheat  will,  yet  as  it  takes 


4 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


its  nourishment  from  a deeper  strata  of  the  soil  than  the  Wheat  crop,  it 
does  not  exhaust  the  land,  as  is  generally  supposed,  in  the  same  manner  as 
grain  does,  if  (mark  that  if ) the  habits  of  the  plant  are  fairly  met.  This 
statement  is,  I am  aware,  apparently  contrary  to  the  experience  of  Flax 
growers,  and  open  to  criticism;  but  as  the  arguments  in  support  of  it  would 
take  up  too  much  space  in  this  Bulletin,  I will  merely  state,  as  a matter 
of  fact,  that  recent  scientific  examinations  have  established  the  correctness 
of  this  statement,  although  of  such  recent  date  that  they  have  not  yet  be- 
come generally  known  and  accredited,  especially  by  that  class  of  Flax 
farmers  who  think  “they  know  it  all ! ” It  is  a matter  of  experience  in 
Europe,  as  illustrating  this  point,  that  when  a farmer  is  short  of  fertilizers 
for  his  Flax  crop  he  will  plow  his  land  ten  or  twelve  inches  deep  in  the 
fall,  again  plow  shallower  in  the  spring,  cultivate,  harrow  and  roll,  till  the 
land  is  as  fine  as  an  onion  bed,  sow  Flax  and  have  a fine  crop;  and  follow 
it  with  Wheat  in  the  fall,  without  fertilizer,  and  harvest  from  45  to  60 
bushels  of  Wheat  per  acre.  Now,  if  Flax  was  the  exhaustive  crop  some 
superficial  observers  would  have  it,  such  a result  could  not  be  obtained. 
If,  however,  Flax  is  sown  thinly,  in  shallow,  ill-cultivated  ground,  with 
plenty  of  weeds,  any  land  would  soon  be  exhausted. 

This  idea  of  the  exhaustive  nature  of  Flax  has  also  been  corroborated 
by  the  fact  that  Flax  cannot  be  grown  successfully  in  immediate  succession 
to  Flax  on  the  same  land,  and  it  is  necessary  to  allow  an  interval  of  several 
years  between  two  successive  crops  of  Flax.  This  corroboration  is  only 
apparent,  however,  as  has  been  shown  by  Mr.  Otto  Lugger,  of  the  Minne- 
sota Experiment  Station,  in  a very  complete  series  of  experiments,  an  ac- 
count of  which  is  published  in  Bulletin  No.  40  of  the  Minnesota  Experiment 
Station.  The  details  of  Mr.  Lugger’s  investigations  are  most  instructive, 
interesting  and  original.  I regret  they  are  too  extended  to  quote  in  this 
place.  However,  they  prove  conclusively  that  this  peculiarity  of  one  crop 
of  Flax,  being  inimicable  to  another  immediately  succeeding  it,  does  not 
arise  from  either  soil  exhaustion  or  bacteria,  but  from  the  fact  that  the 
debris  of  the  crop  left  on  the  land  — leaves,  roots,  straw,  etc. — develops  a 
principle  poisonous  to  Flax,  though  not  injurious  to  any  other  crop. 

A still  more  important  factor  in  modifying  the  cultural  treatment  of 
Flax  depends  upon  the  uses  to  which  the  product  is  to  be  applied,  and  may 
be  resolved  into  four,  each  requiring  a distinct  modification  in  the  treat- 
ment of  the  crop. 

First — The  growing  of  Flax  solely  for  the  seed  for  manufacturing  into 
oil  is  adapted  to  hot,  dry  climates,  with  unobstructed  prairie  openings, 
where  cultivation  can  be  carried  out  with  improved  labor-saving 
machinery  and  upon  extended  areas,  as  practiced  in  the  Western  States, 
and  at  the  lowest  possible  cost.  In  this  case  the  seed  is  sown  thinly  to 
encourage  branching,  and  a yield  of  about  10  to  15  bushels  per  acre  may  be 
expected.  In  this  case  the  straw  is  ignored,  burned  or  fed  to  stock,  or  sold 
at  a low  price  for  indurated  fibre  ware,  etc. 

Second— ? The  growing  of  Flax  for  seed  for  again  sowing  for  fibre.  This 


Bulletin  20 — Fibre  Flax  in  Washing-ton 


5 


practice  is  adapted  to  the  delta  lands  on  Puget  Sound  and  Western  Wash- 
ington, and  requires  a thicker  sowing  (i}4  to  2 bushels  per  acre)  in  order 
to  strengthen  and  intensify  the  habit  of  growing  up  in  a long  stalk,  with 
only  a few  branches  at  the  very  top  of  the  plant.  In  both  these  cases  it  is 
necessary  to  allow  the  seed  to  ripen  fully,  and  the  harvesting  may  be  done 
with  an  ordinary  self-binder,  the  knives  being  kept  sharp.  It  being  a very 
important  matter  to  those  growing  Flax  for  fibre  to  have  the  seed  saved 
from  what  might  be  called  pedigree  Flax,  with  a confirmed  habit  of  tall 
growth,  consequently  American  Flax  seed  as  grown  for  the  oil  mills  is 
entirely  unfitted  for  fibre  culture.  At  present  the  seed  for  that  purpose 
requires  to  be  imported  from  Russia,  Holland  or  Belgium,  and  consequently 
a material  difference  in  price  will  be  offered  for  the  two  qualities  of  seed, 
the  ordinary  seed  for  the  oil  mills  being  worth  about  $1  to  $1.25  per  bushel, 
while  seed  for  fibre  purposes  will  be  worth  $2  and  upwards.  The  yield  of 
Flax  seed  of  this  quality  on  Puget  Sound  — where  seed  equal  to  the  Euro- 
pean can  be  grown  — will  be  from  15  to  25  bushels  per  acre. 

Third — Growing  of  Flax  for  fibre  and  saving  the  seed  also,  requires 
sowing  with  \]/2  to  2]/2  bushels  of  seed  per  acre,  and  pulling  the  straw 
when  the  seed  is  in  the  dough  stage.  This  is  really  more  profitable  than 
either  of  the  two  former  systems.  Under  this  system  the  yield  will  be 
from  2]/2  to  4 tons  of  straw  per  acre,  worth  from  $10  to  $20  per  ton,  and 
15  to  20  bushels  of  seed,  for  the  seed  will  ripen  on  the  straw  after  it  is 
pulled.  This  system,  however,  requires  the  establishment  of  scutching 
mills  in  the  neighborhood  to  render  it  feasible. 

Fourth  — Growing  of  Flax  for  the  finest  grades  of  fibre  is  adapted  to 
Puget  Sound  and  Western  Washington,  and  requires  pulling  in  a 
greener  condition  than  the  last,  and  the  fibre  being  so  valuable  that  the 
saving  of  seed  is  of  no  consideration,  the  product  will  be  3 to  4 tons  of 
straw  per  acre,  worth  on  the  farm  from  $15  to  $25  per  ton.  This  system 
requires  heavy  seeding,  2 y2  to  3^  bushels  per  acre,  and  is  also  dependent 
upon  the  establishment  of  scutching  mills,  as  the  farmer’s  work  consists  of 
growing  and  harvesting  the  Flax,  while  the  subsequent  work  of  retting, 
breaking  and  scutching  to  produce  the  raw  fibre  for  the  spinners  and  man- 
ufacturers is  properly  the  work  of  the  scutch  mill  owners.  While  it  is 
quite  possible  for  the  farmer,  if  he  has  the  necessary  skill  and  experience, 
to  ret  and  prepare  the  fibre  for  market  by  hand  work  at  considerable  profit 
to  himself,  yet  he  cannot,  of  course,  successfully  compete  with  the  machine 
work  of  the  scutch  mills. 

In  fact,  in  more  than  one  experiment  I conducted  on  Puget  Sound,  with 
the  resources  only  of  an  ordinary  Puget  Sound  farm,  I have  produced  by 
hand  a grade  of  fibre  worth  14  cents  per  pound  in  the  Eastern  and  Euro- 
pean market,  and  under  other  conditions  could  have  produced  a much  more 
valuable  grade  of  fibre  with  the  same  appliances.  Such  work  might  be 
duplicated  one  thousand  times  by  our  pioneer  farmers  by  working  up  n 
spare  hours  a little  crop  of  Flax,  and  thus  largely  increasing  their  income. 
For  some  years  to  come,  however,  the  practice  will  be  for  the  farmer  to 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


6 


grow  the  Flax  and  sell  the  straw  and  seed  to  the  mill  — the  mill  being 
either  on  the  co-operative  plan  or  proprietary. 

I will  now  proceed  to  consider  the  various  details  of  Flax  culture. 

SOU,. 

Any  reasonably  fertile  soil  will  grow  Flax,  though  the  quality  of  the 
fibre  will  be  modified  by  the  nature  of  the  soil.  I have  had  over  sixty 
different  farmers  grow  experimental  crops  of  Flax  for  me  on  Puget  Sound, 
upon  every  possible  variety  of  soil,  and  the  only  ones  entirely  unsuited 
were  newly  broken  raw  peat  and  very  light  sandy  land.  This  latter  would, 
however,  have  produced  a fair  crop  if  sown  early  and  in  a moist  season.  A 
deep,  sandy  loam,  with  sufficient  clay  to  give  it  strength  without  stiffness, 
with  good  natural  drainage  — failing  which  artificial  drainage  must  be  pro- 
vided, as  wet,  soggy  land  is  unsuitable  for  Flax.  The  uplands  produce  a 
finer  quality  of  fibre  than  the  black  alluvial  river  deltas,  though  the  rich 
bottom  lands  will  produce  large  crops  and  seed  of  high  quality,  and  if  sown 
thickly  and  early  will  give  a very  long,  straight  stem,  without  branches. 

PREPARATION  OF  SOIE. 

For  Flax,  owing  to  its  habit  of  sending  down  a long  tap  root  to  the  sub- 
soil, a deep  seed  bed  is  required,  and  the  land  should  be  plowTed  ten  or 
twelve  inches  deep  in  the  fall.  In  land  adapted  to  it,  subsoiling  will  be 
found  of  great  advantage,  harrowing  the  land  level  after  the  fall  plowing 
and  leaving  it  for  the  winter  rains  to  consolidate,  as  owing  to  the  absence 
of  fibrous  roots  the  soil  requires  to  be  firmly  compacted  around  the  slender 
tap  root  below,  while  loose  and  friable  on  the  surface.  Then,  as  early  in 
the  spring  as  the  ground  is  capable  of  being  worked  — in  Western  Wash- 
ington from  the  middle  of  March  to  the  middle  of  April  — again  plow  shal- 
low, about  three  or  four  inches,  and  harrow  and  work  till  a fine  tilth  is 
obtained,  suitable  for  an  onion  bed,  and  if  the  land  is  of  a light  sandy 
nature,  roll.  At  this  stage,  it  will  be  well  to  wait  a week  or  ten  days  to 
allow  the  weed  seeds  in  the  ground  to  start,  and  then  harrow  or  cultivate 
thoroughly  to  smother  the  millions  of  weed  seeds  that  may  start  to  grow. 
For,  remember  that  “ Weeds  are  death  on  Flax.  ’ ’ No  use  trying  to  grow  Flax 
on  weedy  or  lumpy  land.  In  Europe  the  men,  women  and  children  go 
down  on  their  knees,  sometimes  two  or  three  times,  to  hand  pick  the  weeds, 
but  this  practice  is  contrary  to  the  spirit  of  the  American  people,  and  in 
order  to  Americanize  the  European  practice  it  is  necessary  to  have  our  Flax 
land  clean  of  weeds  before  sowing,  which  may  be  secured  by  careful  tillage, 
or  by  using  a two  or  three-year  old  clover  sod  or  meadow,  freshly  broken  in 
the  fall. 

SEED. 

Ordinary  American  or  Canadian  seed,  about  three  pecks  to  the  acre, 
will  answer  for  sowing,  when  the  object  is  to  supply  the  oil  mills.  But  if 
intended  for  growing  seed  for  sowing  for  fibre,  imported  Riga,  Dutch  or 
Belgian  seed  is  necessary,  or  at  least  that  quality  of  seed,  acclimated  by 
one  season’s  planting  in  the  United  States;  or,  better  still,  Flax  seed  grown 


Bulletin  20 — Fibre  Flax  in  Washington 


7 


on  Puget  Sound  specially  for  fibre  growing  purposes.  For  it  is  an  estab- 
lished fact  that  the  oily  seeds,  such  as  cabbage  and  cauliflower,  grown  on 
Puget  Sound  are  superior  to  any  grown  elsewhere,  and  the  same  holds  good 
with  Puget  Sound  grown  Flax  seed.  It  is  also  important  to  have  clean, 
fresh  and  bright  seed,  and  it  will  be  found  profitable  in  every  case  to  re- 
clean Flax  seed  before  sowing,  as  well  as  to  test  its  germinating  quality. 
So  much  depending  upon  the  thickness  of  the  seeding,  it  is  important  to 
know  before  hand  the  ratio  of  germinating  to  non-germinating  seed,  for 
the  reason  that  if  one  calculates  upon  sowing  thickly,  say  3 bushels  per 
acre,  and  the  seed  from  any  cause  fails  to  germinate  more  than  in  two- 
thirds,  he  will  only  have  the  same  result  that  he  would  secure  by  sowing 
only  2 bushels  of  good  seed,  thus  disappointing  his  expectations.  On  the 
other  hand,  by  testing  his  seed  before  sowing  he  would  be  enabled  to 
secure  the  desired  result  by  adding  little  more  than  one-third  more  seed  to 
supply  the  loss.  This  seed  testing  is  a simple  matter,  and  may  be  effected 
by  counting  out  100  average  seeds  and  placing  between  folds  of  moist  cloth 
or  flannel,  upon  an  ordinary  plate,  and  placing  in  a warm  corner  near  the 
stove.  This  should  be  done  one  or  two  weeks  before  sowing  time.  In  the 
course  of  two  or  three  days  the  good  seed  will  swell  up  and  germinate,  and 
by  counting  the  seeds  that  sprout,  the  percentage  of  good  to  bad  seed  will 
be  known,  and  allowance  made  accordingly.  It  is  not  necessary  to  carry 
the  germinating  further  than  the  bursting  of  the  husk  and  appearance  of 
the  germ  or  sprout. 

The  quantity  of  seed  to  be  sown  varies  according  to  purpose  in  view. 
If  for  seed  only  for  the  oil  mill,  3 pecks  per  acre  will  be  sufficient,  and  may 
be  sown  either  broadcast  or  with  a drill.  If  for  seed  for  sowing  for  fibre 
purposes,  the  seeding  should  not  be  less  than  1 bushels  (90  lbs)  per  acre, 
and  may  be  increased  with  advantage  to  2 bushels  per  acre,  and  should  be 
sown  broadcast,  in  order  to  intensify  the  habit  of  tall  growth  without 
branching. 

If  for  fibre  purpose,  2,  2^,  3 and  even  bushels  per  acre  may  be  sown, 
and  must  be  broadcasted,  with  great  care,  to  have  the  crop  uniform  in 
thickness  all  through,  as  it  is  a very  bad  fault  to  have  the  straw  uneven  in 
length  and  fineness,  and  one  that  will  call  for  docking  in  the  price  at  the 
mill,  for  the  reason  that  coarse  straw  rets  more  rapidly  than  fine,  conse- 
quently if  mixed  a uniform  ret  cannot  be  obtained,  and  the  quality  of  the 
fibre  is  injured  thereby. 

After  sowing,  the  seed  is  lightly  covered  and  rolled,  and  if  the  soil  and 
season  are  favorable  the  seed  will  germinate  in  a few  days,  and  in  clean 
ground  require  no  further  treatment  till  harvested. 

ROTATION  OR  CROPS. 

In  Flax  culture  the  rotation  of  crops  is  a question  of  great  importance, 
and  cannot  be  laid  down  under  any  iron-clad  rule.  There  are,  however, 
fundamental  principles  that  will  guide  the  intelligent  farmer  and  enable 
him  to  conform  with  his  local  conditions.  The  first  is,  “ Weeds  are  death 
on  Flax,"  consequently  any  system  that  will  secure  clean  land  before  sow- 


8 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


ing  will  meet  this  requirement;  among  which  we  may  mention,  deep  plow- 
ing of  clover  sod  or  grass  meadow,  throwing  the  sod,  by  means  of  a jointer 
or  skim  plow,  to  the  bottom  of  the  furrow  and  covering  it  completely  with 
the  furrow  slice,  and  again  plowing  shallow  in  the  spring;  or  using  ground 
that  has  been  under  hoed  crops  the  previous  season  and  kept  clean  all  the 
season.  Not  as  many  hoed  crops  are  worked  with  a cultivator  two  or  three 
times  in  the  early  part  of  the  season  and  left  neglected  for  a late  crop  of 
weeds  to  become  established.  Also  land  that  has  been  summer  fallowed. 
By  summer  fallowed,  I mean  summer  fallowed — not  plowed  and  left  all 
summer  un worked,  but  plowed  in  the  spring  and  then  cultivated  without  a 
crop  every  few  weeks  all  through  the  season,  until  in  September  or  October 
not  a live  weed  can  be  found  in  it.  This  is  summer  fallowing. 

The  next  principal  is,  uFlax  must  not  succeed  Flax  on  the  same  land." 
In  Europe  an  interval  of  five,  eight  or  ten  years  is  allowed  to  elapse  be- 
tween two  crops  of  Flax,  but  in  our  newer  lands  an  interval  of  three  or 
four  will  be  perhaps  sufficient.  The  European  farmers  divide  their  lands 
into  definite  plats,  and  go  through  a regular  rotation.  This,  like  the  last, 
cannot  be  submitted  to  any  definite  rule,  the  local  conditions  of  each  farmer 
requiring  consideration.  I,  however,  submit  the  following  sample  of  the 
five-year  course  suitable  to  Puget  Sound: 


1st  Year. 

2nd  Year. 

3rd  Year. 

4th  Year. 
5th  Year. 


P'all  plowed  Clover  sod,  sown  in  spring  to  Flax,  pulled  in 
July  or  August,  and  sown  to  Crimson  Clover  on  removal 
of  Flax,  12  to  15  pounds  per  acre. 

Fertilize  in  winter  or  early  spring,  and  turn  under  in  May, 
and  plant  Potatoes,  or  other  root  crops;  plant  Rye  or 
Rape  after  Potatoes  are  dug. 

Plow  under  Rye  or  Rape  in  spring  and  sow  to  Oats  or 
Peas,  or  both,  and  seed  down  with  Red  Clover,  Alsike 
and  Orchard  and  tall  Fescue  Grass. 

Fertilize  Clover  sod,  and  cut  two  crops  of  Hay. 

Cut  one  crop  of  Hay,  and  spread  manure  on  aftermath, 
and  turn  under  deeply,  as  in  first  year,  and  sow  to  Flax 
again . 


Under  this  rotation  the  land  is  never  bare  all  winter,  except  one  season 
in  the  rotation,  consequently  there  is  always  a crop  holding  the  plant  food 
from  being  washed  awa}  by  the  winter  snow  and  rain,  and  the  land  is  im- 
proving in  fertility  each  year. 


HARVESTING. 

Flax,  if  grown  for  seed  only,  may  be  harvested  very  cheaply  with  a 
self-binding  harvester,  and  the  seed  threshed  out  with  an  ordinary  grain 
thresher  having  one  of  the  concaves  removed.  If  grown  for  fibre  purposes, 
the  Flax  must  be  pulled,  and  tied  neatly  in  uniform  bundles  about  6 to  8 
inches  in  diameter,  with  the  butts  all  evenly  set  upon  one  plain,  not  “hig- 
gledy  piggledy,”  sticking  out  irregularly,  up  and  down  the  bunch  for  a foot 


Bulletin  20 — Fibre  Flax  in  Washington 


9 


or  more.  Carelessness  in  this  particular  will  reduce  the  value  of  the  crop 
at  the  mill  by  from  $1  to  $3  per  ton.  When  the  seed  has  reached  the  dough 
stage  and  is  beginning  to  turn  color,  is  the  time  to  harvest  the  crop  by 
pulling,  which  is  an  expensive  process.  Mr.  Eugene  Bosse,  a Flax  expert 
in  Wisconsin,  states  that  there  it  took  one  man  thirty  hours  to  pull  one  acre 
of  Flax;  while  my  experience  on  Puget  Sound  required  double  that  time  to 
pull  and  tie  one  measured  acre  of  Flax.  Some  reduction  upon  that  time 
might  be  made  by  experienced  pullers  — my  crew  being  all  unfamiliar  with 
the  work.  I think  $10  per  acre  about  as  low  a price  as  the  work  can  be 
done  for  by  hatid.  There  are  in  the  United  States,  however,  flax-pulling 
machines  that  will  pull  two  acres  of  Flax  per  day,  with  two  horses,  and 
others  of  even  greater  capacity.  Consequently  where  those  machines  are 
available  Flax  may  be  pulled  for  $ 1.50  to  $2  per  acre.  When  the  hand 
process  is  adopted,  it  is  necessary  to  have  suitable  bands  for  binding  the 
bundles  prepared  beforehand.  In  Ireland  rushes  are  used  for  this  purpose, 
and  great  piles  of  them  are  gotten  ready  and  distributed  over  the  field  by 
boys.  In  Europe,  Rye  or  Oat  straw  is  used  for  the  same  purpose.  The 
pullers  on  going  to  work  put  a number  of  those  bands  around  their  necks, 
as  many  as  they  can  carry,  and  as  sufficient  Flax  is  pulled  to  make  a bundle 
they  draw  a band  from  round  their  neck  and  tie  the  bundle,  and  boys  come 
along  and  set  them  up  in  stocks  or  singly  to  dry.  The  Americanized  sys- 
tem, which  I recommend,  is  to  make  the  bands  of  binder’s  twine,  about 
thirty  inches  long,  with  a bowline  or  loop  tied  at  one  end  of  each,  as  a 
much  larger  number  of  these  can  be  carried  round  the  neck  over  the  shoul- 
ders than  the  more  clumsy  rushes  or  straw  bands.  I also  recommend  the 
pullers  only  to  pull  and  the  binders  only  to  bind.  Thus  both  become  more 
expert,  and  time  and  cost  is  economized.  The  pullers  stoop  down  and  lay 
hold  of  as  much  Flax  as  they  can  collect  by  drawing  both  hands  together, 
and  with  a jerk  pull  it  free  from  the  ground;  then  with  the  right  turned 
backward  and  the  thumb  down,  make  a sweep,  inclosing  what  Flax  they 
can  grasp  in  the  right  hand  and  carry  it  towards  the  left  hand,  and  jerk  it 
from  the  ground;  as  soon  as  the  left  hand  contains  all  it  can  hold  sweep  it 
upwards  free  of  still  standing  Flax;  as  the  bunch  comes  down  let  its  roots 
strike  the  foot  or  ground  with  a smart  stroke,  to  knock  off  the  adhering 
soil,  if  any  there  is,  and  lay  the  bundle  smoothly  on  the  ground;  repeat  the 
process,  but  lay  the  next  bunch  across  the  first,  and  so  proceed  until  there 
is  enough  on  the  ground  in  a bunch  to  make  a suitable  bundle;  then  the 
binder  comes  along  with  his  bands,  and  gathering  up  the  Flax  jabs  the 
butts  on  the  ground  to  even  them,  and  secures  the  bundle  with  the  string 
tied  just  below  the  seed  ends,  and  throws  it  to  one  side  for  the  boys  to  set 
up  in  stock.  And  so  the  work  goes  on  till  all  is  harvested.  It  is  important 
to  rush  this  pulling  through  while  the  straw  is  in  the  proper  condition,  as 
the  fibre  rapidly  deteriorates  if  allowed  to  become  too  ripe  for  best  quality 
of  fibre,  losing  its  softness  and  becoming  coarse  and  harsh.  The  Flax  has 
now  only  to  dry  to  be  ready  for  delivery  at  the  mill,  as  the  mill  will  take 
the  straw  with  the  seed  balls  on,  buying  the  whole  by  weight  at  so  much 


IO 


Washington  Agricultural  Experimeiit  Station 


per  ton,  at  an  average  price  of  $15  per  ton,  varying,  however  in  price  ac- 
cording to  quality.  The  elements  regulating  its  value  being  length,  fine- 
ness and  uniformity  of  straw,  absence  of  weeds  in  the  bunches,  and  care 
and  neatness  used  in  tying  them. 

Some  farmers  may,  however,  wish  to  save  the  seed  for  their  own  use,  in 
which  case  the  process  of  rippling  is  used.  This  is  a slow  and  tedious 
process,  and  where  the  farmer  has  not  the  facilities  for  the  work  it  will  be 
more  profitable  for  him  to  sell  straw  and  seed  together  to  the  mill,  and 
purchase  back  what  seed  he  may  require.  There  are  several  methods  of 
rippling,  the  most  commonly  used,  however,  consists  of  a comb  made  of 
round  spikes  about  one-eighth  of  an  inch  apart,  over  which  small  hand- 
fuls of  Flax  tightly  grasped  in  both  hands  are  struck  and  drawn  through 
several  times,  until  all  the  bolls  are  stripped  off  the  straw,  when  the  seed 
and  bolls  are  spread  in  a layer,  one  foot  or  so  deep,  to  dry,  being  frequently 
stirred  and  turned  to  prevent  mustiness.  They  can  then  be  run  through  a 
steam  or  horse-power  thresher  to  separate  the  seed  from  the  hulls,  and  re- 
cleaned with  an  ordinary  fanning  mill  supplied  with  a suitable  Flax  seed 
hurdle. 

The  farmer  may  now  be  desirous  of  having  some  estimate  of  the  profit 
to  him  as  a farmer  in  Flax  culture,  and  although  local  conditions  may 
modify  the  figures  here  given,  they  will,  I think,  prove  a fair,  conservative 
average. 

Growing  Flax  seed  for  the  oil  mills  is  not  a costly  operation.  Twice 
plowing,  harrowing,  rolling  and  seeding,  may  be  put  at  $8  per  acre;  3 pecks 
of  ordinary  American  seed,  90  cents;  harvesting  with  twine  binder,  thresh- 
ing and  sacking,  $3;  say  $12  total  cultural  expenses.  Yield  from  15  to  20 
bushels  of  seed  at  $1.20  — $18  to  $24;  profit  $6  to  $12  per  acre.  No  very  big 
thing,  nevertheless  fairly  profitable  if  carried  out  on  a large  scale. 

Growing  for  seed  for  sowing  for  fibre  purposes,  the  cost  will  be  the  same 
for  culture  and  harvesting,  $11,  plus  a larger  quantity  of  more  costly  seed, 
amounting  to  $2.50;  total,  $13.50.  Yield  the  same  as  the  former,  only  the 
product  will  bring  a higher  price  of  $2  per  bushel,  amounting  to  $30  to  $40 
per  acre,  giving  a profit  of  $16.50  to  $26.50,  or  somewhat  better. 

Growing  for  seed  and  fibre,  we  may  figure  upon  3 to  4 tons  of  straw  and 
15  to  20  bushels  of  seed  per  acre.  The  cultural  expenses,  however,  will  be 
greater,  including  the  hand  pulling  and  the  larger  amount  of  seed  required, 
which  may  be  estimated:  Cultural  expenses  as  above,  $8;  pulling,  binding 

and  stocking,  $10;  rippling  and  cleaning  seed,  $10;  seed,  $3.50;  hauling 
and  stacking,  or  housing,  $3;  total,  $34.50.  Yield,  3 to  4 tons  straw,  at 
$15 — $45  to  $60;  seed,  $18  to  $24;  total,  $63  to  $84;  profit,  $28.50  to  $49-5° 
per  acre.  A result,  it  seems  to  me,  far  more  profitable  than  the  farmer  can 
at  this  time  ordinarily  obtain. 

Carrying  this  estimate  a step  further  to  see  what  an  ordinary  farmer 
can  do  if  he  has  learned  how  to  ret  and  hand  work  Flax  by  working  at  odd 
times  in  the  winter  and  under  cover.  Out  of  this  acre  of  Flax,  that  cost 
him  $34.50  to  grow,  he  can  produce  by  hand  work  between  500  and  600 


Bulletin  20 — Fibre  Flax  in  Washington 


11 


pounds  of  fine  fibre,  worth  all  the  way  from  10  cents  to  40  cents  per  pound, 
without  any  cash  outlay,  though  considerable  expenditure  of  time  and 
labor,  but  as  the  greater  portion  of  this  labor  can  be  done  in  the  house  or 
barn  in  winter  time,  and  at  spare  hours,  a material  increase  of  income  can 
be  secured  with  the  common  facilities  to  be  had  upon  an  ordinary  pioneer 
farm. 

This  question,  however,  opens  up  a large  field  for  investigation,  but  . 
having  reached  the  limit  of  space  allowed,  must  defer  its  consideration  to 
a future  opportunity. 


' 


• ■ « 


WASHINGTON  STATE  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE  AND 
SCHOOL  OF  SCIENCE 


Experiment  Station 


PULLMAN,  WASHINGTON 


Bulletin  21 


SUSCEPTIBILITY  OF  SPERMOPHILES  TO  PATHOGENIC 

BACTERIA 

BY 

A.  B.  KIBBE,  M.  D. 


1896 


All  bulletins  of  this  station  sent  free  to  citizens  of  the  state 
on  application  to  the  Director. 


THE  CALVERT  CO.,  716  FIRST  AYE.,  SEATTLE 


THE  AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 

BOARD  OF  CONTROL. 


E.  S.  Ingraham,  President , ---------  Seattle 

J.  W.  Arrasmith,  Vice-Presideyit , -------  Colfax 

J.  W.  Stearns,  Treasurer , Tekoa 

H.  S.  Beandford,  - - Walla  Walla 

T.  R.  Tannatt,  - - - - Farmington 

STATION  STAFF. 


Enoch  A.  Bryan,  ------------  Director 

W.  J.  Spieeman,  - ---------  Agriculturist 

C.  V.  Piper,  - - -----  Botanist  and  Entomologist 

Eeton  Fuemer,  - - - - _ . . Chemist 

John  A.  Baemer,  - - Horticulturist 

S.  B.  Neeson,  - --  --  --  --  --  - Veterinarian 

R.  W.  Doane,  ----------  Assistant  Zoologist 

W.  H.  Heieeman,  - - Assistant  Chemist 


SUSCEPTIBILITY  OF  SPERMOPHILES  TO  PATH- 
OGENIC BACTERIA 


BY 

A.  B.  KIBBE,  M.  D. 


In  June,  1895,  I received  from  the  Agricultural  College  at  Pullman  in 
this  State  a box  containing  nine  living  and  four  dea  l and  partly  eaten 
spermophili  which  were  sent  to  me  in  order  to  determine  their  suscepti- 
bility to  pathogenic  bacteria.  Several  days  later  I received  a second 
lot  from  Walla  Walla.  Of  these,  originally  twelve  in  number,  but  four 
were  living;  the  dead,  like  those  from  Pullman,  bearing  evidence  of  hav- 
ing been  partly  eaten.  In  both  boxes  there  was  an  abundance  of  food  and 
the  animals  had  been  on  the  road  less  than  twenty-four  hours.  In  July  a 
third  lot  was  received  from  Ellensburg  of  which  seven  were  living  and  five 
dead.  Of  the  latter  several  were  partly  devoured.  Those  coming  from 
Pullman,  a town  in  the  extreme  eastern  part  of  the  state,  were  much  larger 
and  heavier  than  those  from  the  other  points  which  were  similar  in  general 
appearance.  The  former  I took  to  be  the  Franklin  spermophile.  The 
others,  while  resembling  the  Franklin  to  some  extent,  were  much  smaller. 
It  was  impossible  to  classify  them  as  no  description  of  any  known  variety 
seemed  to  apply.  It  is  probable  that  they  belong  to  one  of  the  numerous 
unclassified  species. 

Before  any  experiments  were  undertaken  011  either  variety  they  were 
carefully  fed  and  cared  for  for  several  weeks  in  order  that  their  condition 
at  the  time  of  inoculation  might  be  as  nearly  perfect  as  possible  in  a state 
of  captivity. 

Literature  relative  to  field  pests  contains  no  record,  as  far  as  I am  aware, 
of  anything  bearing  on  the  susceptibility  of  spermophiles  to  pathogenic 
bacteria  with  the  exception  of  Palmirski’s*  experiments  with  the  vibrio 
Metschnikovi  and  recently  an  article  by  Mereslikow^ky.f  The  former 
seems  to  have  merely  reported  the  results  of  a laboratory  experiment  and 
made  no  attempt  to  apply  his  results,  striking  though  they  were,  to  the 
field,  probably  owing  to  the  fear  of  spreading  an  epidemic  among  fowls, 
the  organism  used  having  been  isolated  by  Gamaleia  from  chickens  af- 
fected with  a choleraic  disease. 

Mereshkowsky’s  paper  deals  with  experiments  made  with  a bacillus  iso- 

* Archives  des  Sciences  Biologiques,  II,  p.  497. 

Ceutralblatt  fur  Bacteriologie,  Bd.  XVII,  No.  21,  s.  742. 


4 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


lated  from  spermophili  dying  from  an  epidemic  originating  spontaneously. 
Unfortunately  he  was  unable  to  determine  their  susceptibility  to  cultures 
of  the  specific  bacillus  in  artificial  media,  owing  to  the  severity  of  the 
epidemic  among  the  animals  sent  to  the  laboratory  having  been  so  great 
that  all,  some  150,  died  from  infection  due  to  eating  the  dead.  Bacterio- 
logical examinations  in  every  instance  showed  pure  cultures  of  the  same 
bacillus.  This  species  he  terms  spermophilus  musicus.  Another  species, 
termed  spermophilus  guttatus , was  used  for  experiment  owing  to  his  in- 
ability to  obtain  any  more  of  the  first  variety.  They  also  were  susceptible 
as  far  as  tested  by  inoculation  and  apparently  to  feeding.  Whether  or  not 
those  referred  to  by  both  Palmirsky  and  Mereslikowsky  are  similar  to 
those  inhabiting  this  country  is  uncertain. 

It  was  my  intention  to  commence  the  experiments  with  Loeffier’s  bacil- 
lus typhi  murium  but  tests  with  a culture  showing  it  had  completely  lost 
its  virulence,  I was  forced  to  abandon  the  idea  as  I found  it  impossible  to 
obtain  a culture  sufficiently  active.  This  was  particularly  disappointing  as 
the  pathogenic  qualities  of  this  organism  have  been  so  thoroughly  studied 
that  its  dangers  are  known  to  be  almost  nil,  that  is  as  far  as  we  know  them 
from  laboratory  experiment. 

Having  what  I knew  to  be  a reliable  culture  of  the  vibrio  Metschnikovi, 
bouillon  cultures  were  prepared  and  in  order  to  obtain  as  high  a degree  of 
virulence  as  possible  young  pigeons  were  inoculated  in  the  breast  muscle. 
Cultures  from  the  heart  blood  were  then  successively  used  on  each  of 
seven  full  grown  pigeons  until  in  the  last  death  took  place  within  seven 
hours.  Two  of  the  Franklin  and  two  of  the  smaller  variety  of  squirrels 
each  received  .5CC  of  a twenty-four  hour  old  bouillon  culture  grown  in  the 
incubator  and  a young  pigeon  as  control  received  a like  amount.  In  the 
squirrels  the  culture  was  injected  beneath  the  skin  over  the  spine,  in  the 
pigeons  at  the  usual  site  of  inoculation,  the  breast  muscle.  The  inoculated 
squirrels  were  placed  in  separate  cages  and  the  pigeon,  which  was  found 
dead  the  same  evening,  after  opening  the  breast  and  preparing  cover  glass 
speciments  of  blood,  was  placed  in  a cage  containing  four  Franklin  squir- 
rels. The  following  day  the  only  evidence  that  a pigeon  had  ever  been  in 
the  box  was  the  presence  of  feathers  and  well  cleaned  bones.  Forty-eight 
hours  later  one  of  the  smaller  squirrels  was  found  dead  in  the  cage. 
Bacteriological  examination  showed  the  vibrio  Metschnikovi  in  pure  culture 
though  the  colonies  on  the  agar  plate  were  comparatively  few  in  number. 

The  other  animals  were  closely  observed  for  several  weeks  but  presented 
no  evidence  of  having  been  in  the  least  affected  by  the  inoculation.  Later 
two  more  of  each  variety  were  inoculated  in  the  same  manner  with  nega- 
tive results. 

From  this  it  would  appear  that  the  Russian  spermophile,  at  least  the 
variety  used  by  Palmirsky  in  his  experiments,  is  a different  species. 

It  has  been  suggested  that  the  comparative  absence  of  these  pests  in  lo- 
calities where  hogs  are  raised  may  be  due  to  their  susceptibility  to  the 
bacilli  of  either  hog  colera  or  swine  plague  or  to  both.  Though  either  of 


Susceptibility  of  Spermophiles  to  Pathogenic  Bacteria 


5 


these  organisms  would  be  highly  unsuitable  for  use  in  the  field  the  question 
is  one  of  interest  and  possibly  of  importance. 

To  determine  whether  the  observed  condition  is  simply  a coincidence  or 
is  really  based  on  the  fact  of  their  susceptibility  to  these  organisms  the 
following  experiments  were  made  : 

Two  squirrels  of  each  variety  were  inoculated  with  .5CC  of  a bouillon 
culture  of  hog  cholera  the  virulence  of  which  was  first  tested  on  a rabbit 
and  shown  to  be  active. 

Six  weeks  later,  the  animals  not  having  shown  any  evidence  of  impair- 
ment in  health,  they  were  inoculated  with  a like  amount  of  a virulent 
culture  of  swine  plague  without  result. 

The  experiment  was  next  tried  of  inoculating  several  of  each  variety 
with  putrid  blood. 

For  this  purpose  a small  jar  of  calves’  blood  was  allowed  to  stand  in  a 
warm  and  dark  place  in  the  laboratory  for  forty-eight  hours.  Microscopic 
examination  at  the  end  of  this  time  showing  bacteria  in  abundance  ; .5CC  of 
the  fluid  was  injected  beneath  the  skin  of  the  back  of  two  squirrels  of  each 
variety.  One  of  these  only  died  greatly  emaciated  at  the  end  of  the  sixth 
week.  Careful  examination,  however,  failed  to  show  any  form  of  bacterium 
in  the  blood  or  tissues. 

The  frequency  of  disease  among  domestic  animals  when  kept  in  filthy 
surroundings  and  the  fact  that  mice  and  guinea  pigs  often  develop  epi- 
demics in  laboratories  unless  particular  pains  are  taken  to  keep  their  cages 
clean  led  me  to  make  an  attempt  to  induce,  as  it  were,  artificially  that 
which  occurs  naturally.  For  this  purpose  six  of  the  large  or  Franklin 
variety  and  four  of  the  smaller  were  placed  in  separate  cages  and  orders 
given  to  the  laboratory  attendant  to  omit  cleaning  them.  The  condition 
which  soon  developed  was  offensive  to  a high  degree  as  these  animals 
even  under  the  most  favorable  circumstances  emit  a decidedly  disagreeable 
odor. 

November  6 two  Franklin  squirrels  were  found  dead  and  still  warm. 
Both  were  fat  and  apparently  healthy  in  every  respect.  Six  hours  later  a 
careful  bacteriological  examination  was  made.  The  gross  appearances  of 
the  abdominal  organs,  as  well  as  those  of  heart  and  lungs,  were  identical 
in  each.  The  small  intestine,  moderately  distended  with  gas,  was  reddish 
in  color  and  contained  a pale  pink  fluid,  the  stomach  was  but  slightly 
altered  , the  liver  swollen  and  mottled,  kidneys  hyperaemic,  spleen  swollen 
and  dark,  lungs  congested,  small  amount  of  fluid  in  pericardial  sac,  heart 
muscle  not  materially  changed. 

Cover-glass  preparations  from  the  heart  blood  showed  a number  of  short 
bacilli,  slightly  thinner  than  typhoid  bacilli  but  of  about  the  same  length. 
Bouillon  cultures  from  heart  blood,  spleen  and  kidneys  and  agar  plates 
from  the  same  gave  in  every  instance  pure  cultures  of  the  same  organism. 
The  colonies  on  agar  grown  in  the  incubator  at  the  end  of  twenty-four 
hours  were  peculiar  and  resembled  those  of  no  other  bacillus  with  which  I 
am  familiar.  The  center  of  each  colony  was  of  a grayish  white,  somewhat 


6 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


similar  to  typhoid  but  the  edges  faded  away  into  the  surrounding  medium 
so  gradually  that  it  was  difficult  if  not  impossible  to  define  the  boundary. 
In  gelatine  plates  the  colonies,  minute  in  size  were  surrounded  by  a fogging 
of  the  medium  producing  a halo-like  effect  which  is  characteristic.  In 
sharp  contrast  to  that  class  of  organisms  which  Hueppe  terms  the  septi- 
caemia haemorrhagica  group,  this  one  liquified  gelatine  with  great  rapidity. 

Twenty-four  hours  later  a third  squirrel  was  found  dead.  Examination 
showed  the  same  appearance  of  the  liver,  kidney,  spleen,  etc.,  and  cultures 
gave  the  same  bacillus.  The  other  squirrels  were  then  removed  from  the 
cage  to  a clean  and  freshly  prepared  one  where  one  week  later  a fourth  was 
found  dead  from  the  same  bacillus. 

As  it  was  impossible  to  obtain  any  more  before  the  ensuing  March  or 
April  every  precaution  was  taken  to  preserve  the  virulence  of  the  bacillus. 

Unfortunately,  however,  it  proved  nonpathogenic  for  rabbits,  guinea 
pigs  and  white  rats,  ( I had  no  white  mice)  nor  were  the  smaller  variety 
susceptible.  Before  a fresh  supply  was  obtained  in  March  its  virulence 
had  vanished  to  my  great  disappointment.  Every  effort  to  restore  it 
proved  fruitless.  Its  activity  in  growth  on  various  media  seemed  not  to 
have  become  impaired.  One  feature  struck  me  as  being  of  interest  which 
was  the  fact  that  for  a month  or  more  bouillon  cultures  gave  off  an  odor 
closely  resembling  that  of  freshly  voided  urine  from  the  horse.  Later 
this  had  entirely  disappeared  and  I have  often  wondered  whether  its  pres- 
ence was  not  due  to  the  co-existence  of  virulence. 

In  March,  1896,  I obtained  fron^the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  in  Wash- 
ington a culture  of  the  bacillus  isolated  by  Mereshkowsky  and  at  once  in- 
stituted experiments  to  determine  the  susceptibility  of  the  species  I had 
remaining.  Two  of  the  Franklin  and  three  of  the  smaller  variety  were 
all  that  remained  of  those  received  in  1895  ; the  others  having  died  from 
experiment,  injury  and  other  causes.  One  of  each  variety  received  . 5CC  of 
a twenty-four  hour  bouillon  culture.  The  Franklin  remained  unaffected, 
the  other  was  found  dead  twenty-four  hours  later  and  the  bacillus  in  ques- 
tion found  in  heart  blood,  spleen,  liver  and  kidneys.  Sections  of  the  latter 
showed  the  organisms  in  colonies  very  like  those  observed  in  the  rabbit 
after  death  from  the  hog  cholera  bacillus. 

Early  in  April  a number  of  the  Franklin  variety  were  received  from  the 
Agricultural  College  at  Pullman.  All  were  living  and  in  good  condition, 
in  marked  contrast  to  those  coming  from  the  same  place  in  1895  later  in 
the  season.  This  would  seem  to  indicate  greater  vitality  soon  after  hiber- 
nating. Four  were  inoculated  subcutaneously  and  two  in  the  peritoneal 
cavity  but  without  result.  Later  in  April  a dozen  of  the  small  variety 
were  sent  me  from  Walla  Walla.  On  placing  them  in  the  cage  with  those 
of  apparently  the  same  species  which  remained  from  my  last  year's  stock 
it  struck  me  that  there  was  a slight  difference.  Close  examination  showed 
a difference  in  marking.  The  variety  last  received  were  faintly  mottled, 
the  hair  of  their  coat  being  slightly  lighter  in  coloring  in  small  areas,  ar- 
ranged in  an  approach  to  parallel  lines.  This  description  might  possibly 


Susceptibility  of  Spermophiles  to  Pathogenic  Bacteria 


7 


be  thought  to  apply  to  the  spermophilus  tridecemlineatus  but  the  stripes 
are  not  well  defined  nor  the  dots  regular. 

This  variety  proved  to  be  very  slightly  susceptible  as  the  following  shows. 

Four  healthy  ones  received  each  . 5CC  of  a fresh  bouillon  culture,  two 
beneath  the  skin  of  dorsum  and  two  in  the  peritoneal  cavity.  Two  weeks 
later  all  were  still  apparently  healthy. 

One  of  the  small  variety  from  last  year’s  supply  was  then  injected  with 
.5CC  and  found  dead  twenty-four  hours  later.  After  section,  the  body  was 
placed  in  the  cage  containing  the  four  previously  mentioned  who  immedi- 
ately proceeded  to  devour  it.  Six  days  later  one  of  them  was  found  dead. 
Examination  showed  a condition  of  the  abdominal  organs  similar  to  that 
described  by  Mereshkowsky  as  existing  in  the  spermophili  dead  from  the 
same  cause.  Cultures  gave  the  bacillus  in  pure  state.  The  remains  were 
then  fed  to  the  others,  but  without  result. 

Those  of  the  first  supply,  two  in  number,  were  injected  with  fatal  results 
within  twenty-four  hours  in  each  instance,  but  the  late  spring  has  pre- 
vented my  obtaining  any  more  up  to  the  present  time  so  that  I am  unable 
to  state  what  the  result  of  feeding  cultures  of  the  germ  or  the  bodies  of 
those  dead  from  inoculation  would  be. 

The  study  of  this  question  has  not  only  been  of  great  interest  but  has 
shown  itself  to  have  more  sides  than  I anticipated  when  it  was  commenced. 
So  little  seems  to  have  been  known  about  the  habits  of  these  pests  by 
those  even  who  have  suffered  most  from  their  depredations  that  all  I have 
learned  has  been  through  personal  observation  and  experiment.  That 
there  are  at  least  three  varieties  in  this  State  is  certain  and  I am  inclined 
to  think  there  are  more  than  that  number.  Relative  to  the  most  import- 
ant factor  in  the  successful  carrying  out  of  laboratory  experiments,  the 
question  as  to  whether  or  not  these  pests  in  a state  of  freedom  devour  their 
dead,  opinions  differ  greatly.  Many  maintain  strenuously  that  they  do  not, 
while  others  state  that  they  do  so  only  when  the  season  is  very  dry. 
Seattle,  where  these  experiments  have  been  made,  is  too  far  from  their 
habitat  for  me  to  learn  by  observation  the  actual  facts,  but  judging  from 
my  experience  with  the  animals  I should  say  they  were  likely  to  eat  their 
dead  wherever  found.  If  this  is  true,  the  whole  question  simply  resolves 
itself  into  one  of  finding  an  organism  which  is  pathogenic  for  all  three 
varieties  if  possible.  This  would  be  the  ideal,  but  I very  much  doubt  the 
likelihood  of  its  occurrence.  It  is  much  more  probable  that  a germ  will 
be  isolated  which  will  prove  pathogenic  for  one  or  two  species  and  ulti- 
mately such  as  will  prove  efficacious  in  the  case  of  the  others.  That 
organisms  exist  which  are  suitable  I believe  to  be  a well  established  fact 
not  only  from  the  experience  above  mentioned  relative  to  the  breeding  of 
a laboratory  epidemic  among  the  Franklin  species  but  from  the  testimony 
of  those  having  lived  where  the  pests  were  numerous,  which  is  to  the  effect 
that  epidemics  have  been  known  to  break  out  sufficiently  severe  to  practi- 
cally rid  the  country  of  them  for  several  years.  Could  such  an  outbreak 


8 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


be  studied  by  a competent  bacteriologist  the  results  would  be  of  unques- 
tioned value. 

To  wait  for  the  occurrence  of  an  epidemic  is  too  uncertain  a method.  If 
the  damage  done  by  the  pests  is  sufficient  to  warrant  the  expense  an  at- 
tempt should  be  made  in  some  such  manner  as  above  mentioned  to  arti- 
ficially produce  a disease  among  them  in  a specially  provided  laboratory. 
The  supply  of  squirrels  should  be  abundent  in  order  to  maintain  the  viru- 
lence of  the  organisms  should  one  be  isolated  at  a time  when  they  are 
hibernating. 

ADDENDUM. 

Since  the  above  was  written  I find  that  the  large  variety  of  squirrel  is 
not  the  Franklin.  Prof.  T.  S.  Palmer  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry 
in  Washington,  D.  C.,  has  identified  it  as  the  spermophilus  Columbianus  ; 
the  variety  from  Walla  Walla  he  takes  to  be  spermophilus  Townsendi  and 
that  from  Ellensburg  corresponds  to  spermophilus  Mollis  or  Kennicotts 
spermophile. 


WASHINGTON  STATE  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE  AND 
SCHOOL  OF  SCIENCE 


Experiment  Station 


PULLMAN,  WASHINGTON 


Bulletin  22 


INFLUENZA 

By  S.  B.  Nelson,  D.  V.  M. 


OCTOBER,  1S96 


All  bulletins  of  this  station  sent  free  to  citizens  of  the  state 
on  application  to  the  Director. 


THE  CAI.VERT  CO.,  716  FIRST  AVE.,  SEATTLE 


THE  AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 

BOARD  OF  CONTROL. 


E.  S.  Ingraham,  President , ---------  Seattle 

J.  W.  Arrasmith,  Vice-President,  -------  Colfax 

J.  W.  Stearns,  Treasurer , - - - - Tekoa 

H.  S.  Beandford,  ----------  Walla  Walla 

T.  R.  Tannatt,  - - - - - - Farmington 

STATION  STAFF. 


Enoch  A.  Bryan,  ------------  Director 

W.  J.  Spieeman,  - ---------  Agriculturist 

C.  V.  Piper,  - - -----  Botanist  and  Entomologist 

Eeton  Fuemer,  - -----------  Chemist 

John  A.  Baemer,  - - - Horticulturist 

S.  B.  Nelson,  ------------  Veterinarian 

R.  W.  Doane,  ----------  Assistant  Zoologist 

W.  H.  Heieeman,  ---------  Assistant  Chemist 


INFLUENZA 

By  S.  V.  Nelson,  D.  V.  M. 


Syno?iyms . — Epizootic  Catarrhal  Fever;  Epizootic  Catarrh; 
Typhoid  Fever  ; Horse  Distemper  ; Pink  Eye  ; Mountain  Fever  ; 
Shipping  Fever  ; Epizootic,  etc. 

Defi?iition. — Influenza  is  a peculiar  contagious  and  infectious, 
febrile  disease,  assuming  various  forms  by  involving  different 
organs  of  the  body.  The  organs  of  respiration  and  circulation 
are  generally  involved,  and  in  some  instances  the  digestive  and 
locomotory  organs  are  implicated. 

History. — The  very  earliest  accounts  of  this  disease  date  back 
to  about  the  year  1300,  when  a severe  epidemic,  recognized  as 
influenza,  raged  among  the  horses  of  Italy.  During  the  seven- 
teenth century,  epidemics  of  influenza  are  recorded  as  occurring  in 
Germany  and  spreading  over  the  surrounding  countries  of  Europe. 
In  the  year  1711,  it  attacked  the  horses  of  the  armies  of  Europe, 
causing  great  losses.  In  the  eighteenth  century,  this  disease  was 
again  observed  in  Europe  and  also  in  America,  appearing  in 
Eondon  early  in  1732,  and  in  America  later  in  that  year.  In 
which  American  city  this  first  outbreak  occurred  is  not  on  re- 
cord. During  the  present  century,  influenza  has  occurred  epi- 
zootically  in  European  and  North  American  countries,  at  intervals 
from  the  year  1850  up  to  the  present  date.  In  America,  an  ex- 
tensive and  very  virulent  outbreak  occurred  in  1872-73.  This 
outbreak  commenced  in  Toronto,  Canada,  in  the  latter  part  of 
September,  1872.  Radiating  from  Toronto,  it  spread  rapidly  to 
every  city  and  town  in  Canada.  It  spread  south  into  the  United 
States  going  as  far  south  as  Virginia  ; at  the  same  time  travel- 
ling westward,  so  rapidly,  that  in  a few  months  it  reached  the 
states  and  territories  of  the  far  west,  from  which  it  passed  north 
into  British  Columbia,  and  south  into  Mexico  and  South  America, 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


4 


Today  it  might  be  designated  a permanent  disease  among  the 
horses  of  certain  sections  of  this  country,  and  especially  in  large 
cities,  where  the  disease  is  kept  alive  by  the  introduction  of  green 
horses  into  the  large  exchange  stables.  These  new  horses 
generally  suffer  from  an  attack  a short  time  after  being  placed  in 
the  stables,  although  none  of  the  other  horses  there  have  the 
disease  at  that  time. 

Causes . — The  causes  of  influenza  are  direct,  and  indirect  or 
predisposing.  The  direct  cause  is  a micro-organism  which  has 
not  been  isolated  until  lately,  and  about  which,  as  yet,  not  very 
much  is  known. 

Indirect  or  Predisposing  Causes . — Influenza,  like  other  con- 
tagious diseases,  is  influenced  in  its  spread  by  predisposing  or 
favoring  influences. 

There  is  no  doubt,  that  the  severity  of  an  attack  of  influenza, 
depends  greatly  upon  the  conditions  in  which  the  disease  finds 
its  patient.  The  causes  which  render  an  animal  more  suscep- 
tible to  the  action  of  the  virus  are,  neglect  of  every  kind  ; 
overwork  ; change  of  location,  for  instance,  from  the  country  to 
the  city  or  sometimes  from  the  city  to  the  country.  Age  is  also 
a predisposing  cause,  as  young  horses  are  more  severely  affected 
by  the  disease  than  older  horses ; the  latter  when  they  are 
affected,  have  influenza  in  a much  milder  form.  Whether  or  not 
colts  have  this  disease  is  yet  to  be  determined. 

Influenza  may  occur  any  season  of  the  year,  but  it  is  more 
prevalent  during  spring  and  autumn,  than  the  seasons  of  summer 
and  winter  ; because  during  those  periods  horses  shed  their  coats 
of  hair  and  consequently  are  very  susceptible  to  atmospheric 
changes,  which  should  they  be  exposed  to,  would  very  likely 
cause  common  colds  and  coughs.  When  the  animal  is  in  such 
condition  he  becomes  an  easy  victim  to  the  disease,  if  it  is  pre- 
vailing in  the  neighborhood.  Poor  sanitary  conditions,  in  and 
about  the  stable,  are  also  a predisposing  cause  ; for  instance,  dark, 
damp,  filthy  stables,  draughts  of  cold  air  through  the  stables,  or 
defective  ventilation  ; these  all  tend  to  lower  the  vitality  or 
natural  strength  of  the  animal. 

Symptoms. — The  symptoms  of  influenza  manifest  themselves 
four  to  ten  days  after  exposure.  They  vary  in  accordance  with 
the  different  organs  affected.  For  the  sake  of  convenience  of 


Bulletin  22 — Influenza 


5 


description,  we  will  classify  influenza,  as  Catarrhal  and  Pharyn- 
geal, Pulmonary,  Abdominal,  and  Rheumatic. 

Catarrhal  and  Pharyngeal  Form. — The  first  symptoms  are 
rigors  or  shivering  fits,  which  last  from  three  to  five  hours,  these 
may  occur  unobserved  ; they  are  followed  by  a dry,  staring  coat, 
the  hair  standing  on  end  ; partial  or  entire  loss  of  appetite  ; the 
animal  sneezes  frequently  and  has  a short  dry  cough.  Now  if  the 
animal  is  given  a close  examination,  the  surface  temperature  is 
found  unevenly  distributed,  for  instance  ; two  legs  may  be  cold 
and  two  warm,  or  one  leg  cold  and  three  legs  warm,  or  vice 
versa. 

There  is  some  swelling  about  the  throat  which  is  tender  and 
painful  to  the  touch.  The  membrane  lining  the  nose  is  red  and 
dry.  The  temperature  has  risen  to  104°  or  105°  F.  The  pulse 
is  increased  in  number  varying  from  fifty  to  sixty  per  minute, 
and  may  even  be  higher.  At  first  it  is  moderate  in  force  but 
soon  becomes  weak. 

After  the  dry  stage  of  the  mucous  membranes,  they  commence 
to  discharge  a thin,  watery  fluid  which  is  sometimes  mixed  with 
flaky  mucus ; as  the  disease  advances  this  discharge  becomes 
thicker  and  more  copious.  The  soreness  of  the  throat  increases 
with  the  advancement  of  the  disease,  as  is  shown  by  the  par- 
oxysms of  coughing  caused  by  handling  the  throat,  or  by  the 
animal’s  efforts  to  swallow  food  or  water,  which  at  times  is  returned 
through  the  nose.  It  is  often  the  case  that  the  patient  is  unable 
to  swallow  liquids,  while  it  still  retains  the  power  of  swallowing 
solid  food.  The  secretions  of  the  body  are  much  altered  ; the 
bowels  are  torpid,  the  droppings  being  dry  and  pellety,  as  well  as 
coated  with  mucus  ; while  the  urine  is  scanty  and  highly  colored. 
In  a week  to  ten  days,  if  the  disease  terminates  favorably,  all  the 
symptoms  become  lessened  in  severity  ; the  temperature  declines, 
the  pulse  becomes  stronger,  the  appetite  increases,  and  the  cough 
becomes  softer  and  less  in  frequency  ; return  to  health  resulting 
about  two  weeks  after  the  commencement  of  the  attack. 

It  frequently  occurs,  when  the  termination  of  this  form  of  the 
disease  is  not  entirely  favorable,  that  roaring  or  whistling  results, 
if  the  pharyngeal  region  has  been  severely  affected  ; or  chronic 
catarrh  may  remain  if  the  mucous  membranes  of  the  head  have 
been  the  seat  of  intense  lesions.  This  latter  is  very  common  in 


6 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


this  section  of  the  country,  where  horses  are  allowed  to  range. 

Pulmonary  or  Thoracic  Form. — The  symptoms  manifested  in 
this  form  of  influenza,  vary  but  slightly  from  the  ordinary 
symptoms  of  pneumonia  ; the  rapid  breathing,  the  heaving  sides, 
dilated  nostrils,  pinched  expression  of  the  face,  stupidness  from 
imperfect  aeriation  of  the  blood,  are  all  observed.  The  patient 
places  himself  in  the  most  favorable  position  to  obtain  as  much 
pure  air,  as  possible.  The  color  of  the  nasal  membranes  is  much 
darker  than  in  the  preceeding  form.  The  thoracic  form  is 
frequently  seen  in  older  horses,  and  is  quite  serious  in  its  results  ; 
it  being  at  times  followed  by  inflammatory  conditions  of  the  heart. 
In  such  instances  the  disease  generally  proves  fatal. 

Abdominal  or  E7iteric  Form. — The  first  observable  change  of 
symptoms,  from  the  ordinary  form  of  the  disease,  is  a distinct 
abdominal  pain,  manifested  by  the  animal’s  being  very  restless,  he 
kicks  at  his  belly  with  his  hind  feet,  paws  the  ground,  lies  down 
and  rises  again,  but  even  while  he  is  down  he  is  not  at  ease  and 
continually  turns  his  head,  in  an  anxious  manner  towards  the 
flank.  The  membranes  of  the  eyes,  nose  and  mouth  become 
violet  in  color,  and  later  on,  when  the  liver  is  seriously  affected, 
assume  a yellow  tinge.  The  tongue  is  dry  and  furred,  the  ex- 
crement from  the  bowels  is  scanty,  dry  and  hard,  it  is  in  small 
pellets  covered  with  mucus  but  not  often  with  false  membranes. 
The  appetite  is  absent  but  thirst  is  present.  The  abdomen  is 
tender  to  the  touch,  especially  over  the  region  of  the  liver.  The 
pulse  has  increased  in  number  and  is  small  and  wiry.  It  is 
the  very  same  pulse  which  is  observed  in  inflammation  of  the 
bowels.  The  respirations  are  increased  in  proportion  to  the  pulse 
and  are  nearly  thoracic.  Towards  the  latter  stage  of  this  form  a 
very  serious  diarrhoea  occurs,  and  when  this  cannot  be  controlled 
or  stopped,  great  prostration  results,  and  the  patient  succumbs  to 
the  disea.se. 

If  however  the  diarrhoea  is  stopped,  the  alarming  symptoms 
disappear  and  the  patient  will  generally  make  a slow  recovery, 
remaining  poor  and  thin  in  flesh,  for  some  time. 

Rheumatic  Form. — Rheumatism  rarely  occurs  at  the  same  time 
or  during  the  period  that  the  disease  is  increasing  in  severity,  but 
rather  consequently  to  its  having  reached  its  climax  and  the 
animal  has  commenced  to  improve,  or  it  may  occur  as  a sequel 


Bulletin  22 — Influenza 


7 


just  at  the  time  when  the  animal  is  nearly  convalescent  ; still  the 
tendency  towards  rheumatism  may  reveal  itself  in  the  earlier 
stages  of  the  disease,  by  stiffness  of  the  limbs  and  crackling  of 
the  joints. 

When  the  patient  becomes  affected  with  rheumatism,  the 
previous  symptoms  of  simple  catarrhal  fever  become  aggravated. 

Rheumatism  may  manifest  itself  as  affecting  certain  muscles, 
but  it  is  most  frequently  observed  in  or  about  the  joints,  affecting 
the  tendinous  tissues  of  these  regions.  Frequently  a patient 
appears  to  be  doing  very  nicely  under  treatment,  when  in  a few 
hours  or  perhaps  over  night,  a change  occurs,  the  tendinous 
structures  of  the  body  becoming  affected  and  the  animal  is 
crippled.  The  structures  most  frequently  affected  under  such 
circumstances  are  the  flexor  tendons  of  the  leg,  commonly  known 
as  the  cords.  They  are  hot  and  swollen,  also  very  tender  when 
handled  or  felt  of.  This  condition  may  shift  or  change  from  one 
leg  to  the  other  in  a very  short  time. 

I have  observed,  that  in  this  state  finely  bred  animals  are  more 
often  affected  with  this  complication  than  the  animals  of  the 
coarser  breeds,  also  that  the  symptoms  of  rheumatism  continue 
a variable  length  of  time  after  the  apparent  return  of  health  from 
the  attack  of  influenza.  Other  complications,  in  addition  to 
those  just  described,  are  occasionally  met  with,  but  not  often. 
They  are  paralysis  from  the  disease  affecting  the  spinal  cord  ; 
dropsy  and  dropsical  swellings,  the  latter  affecting  the  lower 
extremity  of  the  limbs,  and  the  under  surface  of  the  chest  and 
abdomen. 

This  is  seen  in  young  horses  rather  than  in  older  ones. 

Sometimes  when  the  disease  localizes  itself  in  the  eyes,  the 
patient  upon  recovery  is  left  entirely  blind. 

Results  of  Influenza. — The  greater  percentage  of  cases  of  in- 
fluenza recover  without  any  permanent  structural  changes  in  the 
organs  of  the  body,  but  all  are  not  thus  fortunate.  Occasionally 
certain  organs  remain  in  an  abnormal  condition,  such  as  the 
heart,  lungs,  kidneys ; or  there  remain  enlargements  of  the 
tendons  of  the  large  muscles  of  the  limbs,  chronic  swelling  of 
this  or  that  joint,  blindness,  catarrh,  gleet,  roaring  or  whistling. 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


8 


TREATMENT. 

The  treatment  must  consist  of  both  hygienic  and  medicinal 
measures. 

The  patient  must  be  laid  off  from  work,  if  working  when  taken 
sick.  After  this,  if  it  is  possible,  place  him  in  a dry,  light,  clean 
and  well  ventilated  boxstall.  If  no  boxstall  is  available,  place 
him  in  a single  stall  in  which  there  is  plenty  of  good  fresh  air 
but  no  draught.  It  is  much  easier  by  keeping  the  animal  covered 
with  blankets,  to  regulate  the  surface  temperature.  The  blankets 
should  be  daily  removed  from  the  patient,  and  replaced  after 
being  cleaned. 

Give  Jhe  patient  light,  sloppy  foods,  and  as  much  as  he  will 
eat  of  them. 

If  the  appetite  fails,  as  it  often  does,  green  grass  when  it  can 
be  procured  is  to  be  preferred  to  hay. 

When  the  bowels  become  constipated  do  not  physic  the  patient 
severely,  but  rather  try  to  overcome  the  constipation  with  enemas 
of  clear  warm  water  ; also  give  in  feed  morning  and  evening, 
two  ounces  of  either  epsom  salts  or  raw  linseed  oil.  Do  not  give 
an  animal  lukewarm  water  to  drink,  as  there  are  very  few  horses 
that  like  it  or  will  even  drink  it  withont  being  taught  to  do  so  ; 
rather  give  them  cold  water,  not  too  much  at  a time  but  often  ; 
or  linseed  tea  or  milk,  these  latter  two  are  nourishing  and  will 
relieve  irritation  of  the  mucous  membranes. 

To  relieve  the  dryness  and  irritability  of  the  nasal  mucous 
membranes,  prepare  a pailful  of  boiling  water,  cut  the  bottom 
out  of  a sack  and  draw  the  sack  over  the  pail  of  water  and  the 
patient’s  head  so  that  the  steam  from  the  boiling  water  will  rise 
up  through  the  sack  causing  the  patient  to  breathe  it. 

Into  the  boiling  water  should  be  stirred  an  ounce  of  turpentine, 
chloroform  or  ether,  or  a teaspoonful  of  carbolic  acid.  Stir  the 
water  with  a wisp  of  hay  or  straw.  The  patient  should  be 
steamed  three  times  daily,  about  fifteen  minutes  at  each  time. 
Afterwards  rub  the  patient’s  head  dry  so  that  he  will  not  catch 
cold.  Now,  in  giving  medicinal  agents,  I have  found,  that  very 
good  results  are  obtained  by  giving  to  the  patient  in  his  drinking 
water,  three  times  daily,  two  to  four  drachms  of  potassium  nitrate 
or  potassium  chlorate.  If  the  fever  is  high,  give  acetanilid  three 


Bulletin  22 — Influenza 


9 


drachms,  quinine  thirty  grains  ; morning,  noon  and  night  until 
the  fever  is  reduced.  When  the  patient’s  throat  is  very  sore, 
much  benefit  is  derived  from  the  following  : 

Camphor,  pulv .Four  ounces. 

Solid  Ex.  of  Belladonna . Two  ounces. 

Liquorice  Root,  pulv Eight  ounces. 

Simple  Syrup,  enough  to  make  into  a sticky  mass. 

Give  one  teaspoonful  four  to  five  times  daily.  With  a long 
handled  spoon  place  it  between  the  animals  back  teeth,  where  it 
will  gradually  be  softened  and  swallowed. 

In  cases  where  the  cough  remains,  after  the  patient  has  ap- 
parently recovered,  the  throat  should  be  bathed  with  cantharides 
liniment,  night  and  morning,  for  a period  of  four  or  five  days 
unless  vesicles  appear  sooner.  Should  this  not  relieve  the 
trouble,  a blister  must  be  applied  to  the  throat.  A very  good 
blister  is  made,  as  follows  : 

Mercuric  Iodide One  drachm. 

Cantharides,  pulv  One  drachm. 

Cosmoline  One  ounce. 

This  must  be  well  rubbed  together  and  thoroughly  mixed. 

To  apply  the  blister  the  hair  must  be  closely  clipped  from  the 
part  to  be  blistered.  The  part  must  also  be  washed  and  rubbed 
dry.  Now  rub  on  a small  part  of  the  blister,  constantly  rubbing 
on  a little  more.  The  blister  must  be  well  rubbed  in  for  a minute 
or  two  ; and  at  last  a layer  one-eight  of  an  inch  thick  applied. 
Tie  the  patient  in  such  a manner  that  he  cannot  bite  or  rub  the 
blistered  surface. 

The  following  day  he  may  be  given  his  head,  but  must  not  be 
exercised  for  a week  or  two.  Nothing  is  to  be  done  to  the 
blistered  surface,  unless  it  becomes  hard  and  dry,  when  a little 
sweet  oil  should  be  applied  to  soften  the  scabs. 

In  patients  that  present  abdominal  complications,  hot  woolen 
cloths  should  be  applied  to  the  abdomen.  The  patient  should 
also  be  given  injections  of  tepid  water  every  hour. 

Where  the  pain  is  more  persistent  one  or  two  grains  of  mor- 
phine, in  a small  quantity  of  water  may  be  given  to  the  patient 
to  allay  the  pain. 

The  sequel  or  complication,  rheumatism,  must  be  combated  by 
hot  applications  either  wet  or  dry,  as  hot  bandages,  poultices  or 


IO 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


small  sacks  of  hot  salt  bound  about  the  joint.  Whenever  a joint 
is  affected  with  rheumatism  and  there  is  intense  pain  a bandage 
of  soft  material  should  be  applied  about  the  swollen  joint  to 
protect  it  and  prevent  it  from  being  bruised  or  struck  in  any 
manner. 

In  giving  internal  treatment  for  this  trouble  I have  had  very 
good  results  from  using  sodium  salicylate  in  three  drachm  doses, 
given  in  the  feed  morning,  noon,  and  night. 

After  apparent  recovery  there  may  be  swellings  or  thickening 
of  joints  or  tendons.  If  so  they  should  be  blistered.  The  ap- 
plication of  blisters  has  been  described  earlier  in  this  bulletin. 
It  is  sometimes  necessary  to  apply  a blister  the  second  time,  when 
such  is  the  case  it  should  be  done  ten  to  fourteen  days  after  the 
effect  of  the  first  blister  has  subsided. 


WASHINGTON  STATE  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE  AND 
SCHOOL  OF  SCIENCE 


Experiment  Station 


PULLMAN,  WASHINGTON 


Bulletin  23 

TECHNICAL  SERIES  NO.  1 


DEPARTMENT  OF  CHEMISTRY 


SOME  NOTES  CONCERNING  THE  NITROGEN 
CONTENT  OF  SOILS  AND  HUMUS 
By  Elton  Fulmer 


OCTOBER,  1S96 


All  bulletins  of  this  station  sent  free  to  citizens  of  the  state 
on  application  to  the  Director. 


THE  CALVERT  CO.,  716  FIRST  AVE.,  SEATTLE 


THE  AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 

BOARD  OF  CONTROL. 


E.  S.  Ingraham,  President , Seattle 

J.  W.  Arrasmith,  Vice-President , Colfax 

J.  W.  Stearns,  Treasurer , - - - - Tekoa 

H.  S.  Beandeord, Walla  Walla 

T.  R.  Tannatt, Farmington 

STATION  STAFF. 


Enoch  A.  Bryan, Director 

W.  J.  Spieeman, Agriculturist 

C.  V.  Piper,  - - -----  Botanist  and  Entomologist 

Eeton  Fuemer, Chemist 

John  A.  Baemer,  ----- Horticulturist 

S.  B.  Neeson, Veterinarian 

R.  W.  Doane,  - - - - Assistant  Zoologist 

W.  H.  Heieeman, Assistant  Chemist 


SOME  NOTES  CONCERNING  THE  NITROGEN  CON- 
TENT OF  SOILS  AND  HUMUS. 


BY  EI/TON  FULMER. 

Four  or  five  years  ago  the  author  of  this  article  became  con- 
vinced that  the  humus  was  not  receiving  the  attention  from 
agricultural  chemists  that  its  importance  as  a factor  of  soil 
fertility  demanded.  Only  a small  proportion  of  the  soil  analyses 
that  have  been  reported  by  the  various  experiment  stations  have 
included  even  a determination  of  humus  percentage  ; and  a much 
smaller  proportion  have  included  a determination  of  the  per- 
centage of  organic  nitrogen,  or  that  contained  in  the  “ matiere 
noire .”  Only  rarely  do  we  find  an  analysis  that  includes  the 
estimation  of  the  nitrogen  in  the  soil  in  the  form  of  nitrates, 
nitrites,  etc.  That  this  disregard  of  the  humus  has  been  largely 
due  to  a natural  reaction  from  the  other  false  extreme  of  consider- 
ing it  of  paramount  importance^  there  can  be  no  doubt.  A few 
agricultural  chemists  in  the  United  States,  notably  Hilgard, 
Jaffa  and  Snyder,  have  in  the  past  few  years  given  some  detailed 
attention  to  the  subject.  The  results  of  their  work  together  with 
those  of  some  European  investigators,  particularly  Breal,  De- 
herain,  Joffre,  Berthelot  and  Andre,  have  given  an  added  interest 
to  investigation  along  this  line. 

. Berthelot  and  Andre'  have  shown  * that  humus  in  soil  as  well 
as  artificial  humic  acid  has  the  power  of  absorbing  a considerable 
quantity  of  potash  from  dilute  (i  %)  solutions  containing  it. 
They  also  found  from  the  ultimate  organic  analysis  of  four  soils 
rich  in  humus  and  four  poor  in  humus,  that  in  the  former,  con- 
taining from  32.9  to  72.3  per  cent,  organic  matter,  the  nitrogen 
varied  from  1 to  1.7  per  cent.;  while  in  the  latter,  with  from  1.41 
to  3.25  per  cent,  organic  matter,  the  nitrogen  ranged  from  .09  to 
.14  per  cent.  They  further  showed  that  67.1  per  cent,  of  the 


Compt.  rend.,  116  (1893). 


4 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


total  organic  carbon  was  soluble  in  dilute  solutions  of  alkalis, 
27.1  per  cent,  of  which  could  be  reprecipitated  by  acids.  The 
carbon  insoluble  in  alkali  contained  4 per  cent,  nitrogen,  the 
soluble  extract  precipitable  by  acids,  5.6  per  cent.,  and  that  not 
precipitated  by  acids  9.7. 

Breal  has  shown  *by  experiments  that  recently  germinated 
plants  of  lentils,  wheat  and  beans  grown  in  a weak  solution  of 
humate  of  lime  developed  more  rapidly  than  when  grown  in  a 
solution  of  potassium  nitrate,  potassium  phosphate,  or  ordinary 
water.  He  obtained  further  confirmatory  evidence  that  plants 
may  assimilate  humus  directly,  by  placing  in  a highly  colored 
solution  of  humate  of  potash,  a tuft  of  Poa  Annua  divided  into 
two  portions,  one  of  which  had  the  upper  part  of  the  plant 
removed.  This  tuft  had  been  specially  prepared  for  the  experi- 
ment by  cutting  off  the  roots  which  had  developed  in  the  soil, 
and  placing  it  in  water  until  new  white  roots  had  formed.  In 
two  days  the  humate  solution  in  which  the  roots  with  attached 
tops  had  been  placed,  had  become  almost  colorless,  while  the 
other  was  apparently  unaltered.  These  and  other  experiments 
carried  out  by  the  same  investigator  seem  to  demonstrate  the 
ability  of  plant  roots  to  directly  assimilate  organic  carbonaceous 
substances. 

Bohm  had  previously  shown  that  bean  plants  could  regain 
their  starch  destroyed  by  being  kept  in  darkness,  when  their 
stems  and  leaves  were  placed  in  a solution  of  sugar. 

Joffre  concludes  f from  pot  experiments  with  buckwheat  and 
white  mustard  that  Breaks  assertions  concerning  the  assimilation 
of  humus  by  plants,  are  well  founded. 

The  conclusions  drawn  from  experiments  at  the  Grignon 
station  by  Deherain  are  that  Gramineoe  can  obtain  all  the 
necessary  nitrogen  from  sodium  nitrate  — but  that  legumes, 
especially  clover,  require  humic  food.  The  experiments  of  De- 
herain with  chemical  and  organic  manures  forced  the  conclusion 
that  humus  has  a more  important  function  than  a mere  reservoir 
of  nitrogen.  His  results  showed  further  that  a decline  in  fertility 
resulted  from  a decrease  of  the  humus  content.  This  has 
recently  been  confirmed  by  Snyder .$ 

* Ann.  Agron.,  20  (1894). 

+ Bui.  Soc.  Chim.  Paris,  13-14  (1895). 

% Minn.  Sta.  Bull.  30. 


Bulletin  23. — Nitrogen  Content  of  Soils  and  Humus. 


5 


Hilgard  and  Jaffa  have  shown*  that  there  is  a somewhat 
definite  relation  between  the  percentages  of  humus  and  organic 
nitrogen,  the  latter  ranging  from  6 per  cent,  of  the  humus  as  an 
extreme  in  soils  of  the  humid  regions,  to  19  per  cent,  as  an  ex- 
treme in  the  arid  soils.  The  importance  of  the  humus  in  the 
economy  of  plant  production  as  shown  by  the  experiments  above 
mentioned  furnished  an  added  zest  to  the  wTork  detailed  in  the 
following  pages. 

The  investigations  of  Berthelot  and  Andre'  in  particular  con- 
cerning the  solubility  of  the  organic  carbon  in  alkalis,  and  the 
nitrogen  content  of  the  soluble  and  insoluble  portions,  are  es- 
pecially suggestive  of  great  interest  in  further  study. 

The  work  which  is  detailed  in  this  article  simply  consisted  of 
two  determinations  of  nitrogen  in  the  same  soil — one  of  the  total 
nitrogen  in  the  soil  (including  of  course,  nitrates  and  ammonium 
salts,  as  well  as  organic  nitrogen— and  one  of  the  percentage  of 
nitrogen  in  the  humus.  The  work  was  first  planned  for  only  a 
few  samples  of  soil,  in  the  hope  that  the  relation  between  the  total 
nitrogen,  and  that  contained  in  the  humus  might  furnish  a clue 
as  to  the  cause  of  infertility,  where  the  physical  condition  of  the 
soil  was  satisfactory,  and  chemical  analysis  revealed  an  abundance 
of  potash,  phosphoric  acid,  lime,  and  total  nitrogen  by  the 
Kjehldahl  method.  The  relation  between  fertility  and  the  per- 
centage of  organic  nitrogen  seemed  so  marked  in  these  few  cases 
that  it  was  determined  to  carry  the  investigations  further. 

In  the  following  discussion,  the  terms  “ organic  nitrogen  ” and 
“available  nitrogen”  are  used  interchangeably,  meaning  in 
either  case  the  nitrogen  in  the  humus.  It  should  be  noted  that 
this  meaning  is  somewhat  different  from  that  usually  attached  to 
these  phrases.  In  discussions  of  soil  nitrogen,  the  term  ‘ ‘ avail- 
able” is  ordinarily  used  with  reference  to  the  nitrogen  existing 
as  nitrates,  nitrites  and  ammonium  compounds.  We  prefer  to 
use  this  term  with  reference  to  the  humic  nitrogen  because  it  is 
greater  in  amount  and  more  constant,  the  water  soluble  nitro- 
genous compounds  (or  nitric  nitrogen)  being  present  in  soils  in 
minute  quantities,  and  being  subject  to  large  variations  at  different 
seasons  of  the  year. 

Strictly  speaking,  the  term  “organic  nitrogen”  should  mean 

* Oal.  Star  Report— 1892-93. 


6 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


all  of  the  nitrogen  in  the  soil  except  that  existing  as  nitrates, 
nitrites,  etc.  We  use  it  in  connection  with  the  humic  nitrogen, 
because  so  far  as  our  present  knowledge  goes,  this  portion  con- 
stitutes the  reserve  plant  food,  although  as  Berthelot  aud  Andre' 
have  shown  * the  unhumified  organic  matter  in  the  soils  examined 
by  them  contained  4 per  cent,  of  nitrogen. 

Hilgard’s  conclusion  that  any  soil  in  which  the  humus  con- 
tains less  than  2.5  per  cent,  of  nitrogen  is  to  be  suspected  of 
“ nitrogen-hungriness,  ” seems  to  be  fully  verified  by  my  results. 
As  will  be  seen  from  the  following  soil  descriptions,  all  the 
samples  whose  humus  contains  less  than  2.5  per  cent,  nitrogen 
are  not  productive  soils — thus  suggesting  a lack  of  nitrogen, 
although  it  is  particularly  noticeable  that  these  same  soils  are 
gravely  deficient  in  potash.  The  only  exception  to  this  is  No.  73, 
which  is  a very  productive  soil  although  containing  only  1.49 
per  cent,  of  nitrogen  in  the  humus. 

The  very  great  difference  found  by  Hilgard  and  Jaffa  between  the 
percentages  of  humic  nitrogen  in  arid  soils,  and  in  soils  of  humid 
regions,  is  not  fully  confirmed  b}"  this  work,  although  the  samples 
of  arid  soils  tested  were  too  few  to  warrant  any  conclusion. 

In  comparing  the  results  obtained  from  the  different  samples  a 
very  interesting  coincidence  (perhaps  a more  important  relation) 
may  be  seen.  Nineteen  of  the  fifty-three  samples  analyzed,  yield 
results  showing  a relation  which  may  be  expressed  by  the  for- 
mula C = bX_55  } where  a = percentage  of  humus  ; b — percent- 

a 

age  of  total  nitrogen  in  soil  ; C — percentage  of  nitrogen  in  the 
humus.  The  above  formula  is  discussed  toward  the  close  of  this 
article. 

In  all  of  this  work,  the  humus  was  determined  according  to  the 
method  of  Grandeau,  by  extraction  with  6 per  cent,  ammonia 
after  liberation  from  lime  and  other  bases  by  dilute  hydrochloric 
acid. 

The  total  nitrogen  was  determined  in  the  original  soil  by  the 
Kjehldahl  method  modified  to  be  applicable  in  the  presence  of 
nitrates. 

Organic  nitrogen  was  determined  in  the  extract  obtained  by 
treating  the  soil  with  a 5%  solution  of  caustic  soda.  All,  or  an 
aliquot  part  of  this  extract  was  acidified  with  sulphuric  acid, 
* Compt.  rend  , 116  (1893). 


Bulletin  23 — Nitrogen  Content  of  Soils  and  Humus. 


7 


evaporated,  and  submitted  to  the  Kjehldahl  method.  Deci- 
normal  solutions  of  ammonia  and  hydrochloric  acid  were  used. 
Cochineal  was  employed  as  an  indicator. 

In  some  cases,  the  percentage  of  phosphoric  acid  associated 
with  the  humus  was  also  determined.  The  results  are  tabulated 
by  counties,  and,  in  order  to  give  an  idea  of  the  general  character 
of  the  soil,  the  percentages  of  organic  matter,  phosphoric  acid, 
lime,  potash  and  ferric  oxide  are  given  in  connection  with  each. 
We  do  not  attempt  to  draw  any  conclusions  from  the  results 
obtained,  but  simply  state  them  as  they  are. 


SPOKANE  COUNTY. 


30 

114 

115 

Subsoil 

119 

120 

Humus 

2.760 

1.469 

.182 

3.300 

3.170 

Total  Nitrogen  in  soil 

.154 

.131 

.012 

.335 

.414 

Organic  Nitrogen  in  soil 

.138 

.071 

.004 

.256 

.214 

Nitrogen  in  humus 

5.000 

4.830 

2.160 

7.760 

6.760 

Phosphoric  Acid  in  humus 

.009 

.043 

.029 

Organic  matter 

10.507 

7.060 

2.160 

10.373 

11.307 

Phosphoric  Acid  (P2O5) 

.265 

.096 

.153 

.070 

•096 

Lime tCaO) 

.604 

.644 

.431 

.874 

.908 

Potash (K20) 

.436 

.374 

.550 

.663 

.651 

Iron  Peroxid....(Fe2Oj) 

4.461 

2.984 

4.400 

3.617 

3.617 

No.  30  is  a very  rich  soil  consisting  largely  of  wash  from  Mica 
peak  (granitic.)  It  is  now  used  for  growing  celery.  Its  adapt- 
ability to  this  crop  is  doubtless  due  to  an  abundant  supply  of  total 
nitrogen,  90  per  cent,  of  which  is  found  in  the  humus,  constitut- 
ing 5 per  cent,  of  its  weight.  Nos.  119  and  120  are  samples  of 
the  “Spokane  gravel,”  and  fairly  represent  about  one-fourth  of 
the  area  of  Spokane  Valley,  containing  about  sixty  square  miles. 

No.  1 19  has  been  in  cultivation  several  years  and  No.  120  is 
the  same  soil  uncultivated.  It  will  be  noted  that  the  old  soil  has 
less  total  but  more  available  nitrogen  than  the  new,  and  hence  a 
greater  percentage  of  nitrogen  in  the  humus.  The  old  soil  also 
has  less  organic  matter  and  more  humus  than  the  new.  In  the 
old  soil  the  organic  nitrogen  is  76  per  cent,  of  the  total,  while  in 
the  new  it  is  only  51.7  per  cent.  Inasmuch  as  the  old  soil  has 
never  been  fertilized  with  humus  forming  materials  these  facts 
would  seem  to  indicate  that  cultivation  has  a tendency  to  make 
available  the  nitrogen  contained  in  the  unhumified  organic  matter, 
or,  in  other  words,  to  promote  the  humifying  process.  No.  115 
is  the  sub-soil  of  No.  114  which  is  also  a sample  of  the  “ Spokane 


8 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


gravel,”  although  containing  a smaller  proportion  of  organic 
matter  and  humus  than  Nos.  119  and  120.  In  this  sample  54.2 
per  cent,  of  the  total  nitrogen  is  contained  in  the  humus.  These 
large  percentages  of  available  nitrogen  explain  in  a measure  at 
least,  the  great  productivity  of  the  Spokane  gravel  which  con- 
tains only  from  15  to  30  per  cent,  of  fine  earth  finer  than  one-half 
millimeter.  The  percentages  of  humus  are  unusually  high  for 
semi-arid  soils. 


JEFFERSON  COUNTY. 


42 

43 

175 

Humus 

1.648 

.420 

5.010 

Total  Nitrogen  in  soil 

.173 

.102 

.193 

Organic  Nitrogen  in  soil 

.020 

.018 

.169 

Nitrogen  in  humus 

1.195 

4.220 

3.366 

Phosphoric  Acid  in  humus 

.001 

.014 

Organic  matter 

8.607 

3.793 

14.973 

Phosphoric  Acid  (P2O5) 

.109 

.085 

.089 

.154 

.579 

.219 

Potash. (K26) 

.019 

.022 

.054 

Iron  Peroxid...  (Fe263) 

5.124 

5.215 

5.395 

Nos.  42  and  43  were  sent  by  Edward  Cameron  of  Bogachiel. 
Concerning  No.  42  he  says:  ‘‘It  is  upland  soil  covered  with 

timber,  chiefly  hemlock.  It  will  not  produce  unless  burnt  over.” 
No.  175  was  sent  by  M.  W.  Felmly  also  of  Bogachiel,  who  writes 
as  follows  : ‘‘It  is  hill  land  covered  with  hemlock.  It  will  not 

produce  or  even  sprout  anything  when  turned  up  eight  inches 
deep.  Where  it  is  burned  over  it  produces  good  hay,  providing 
it  is  not  turned  up.” 

According  to  these  descriptions,  Nos.  42  and  175  are  of  the 
same  type  as  far  as  crop  production  is  concerned,  but  are  very 
different  in  composition.  Both  samples  contain  too  little  potash 
and  lime  to  be  productive,  and  No.  42  would  seem  to  be  deficient 
in  nitrogen,  its  humus  containing  only  a trifle  more  than  1 per  cent. 
(11.5  per  cent,  of  the  total),  while  No.  175  has  three  times  as 
much  humus,  and  eight  times  as  much  available  nitrogen.  One 
might  however  expect  abnormal  soil  conditions  in  this  region 
because  of  the  excessive  rainfall  which  amounts  to  about  100 
inches  per  annum, 


Bulletin  23 — Nitrogen  Content  of  Soils  and  Humus. 


9 


SAN  JUAN  COUNTY. 


44 

45 

46 

Humus 

29.810 

3.570 

1.062 

Total  Nitrogen  in  soil 

2.189 

.244 

.071 

Organic  Nitrogen  in  soil 

.111 

.097 

.021 

Nitrogen  in  humus 

3.734 

2.732 

3.980 

Phosphoric  Acid  in  humus 

.029 

.075 

.105 

Organic  matter  

74.367 

11.300 

4.513 

Phosphoric  Acid  (P0O5)  

.105 

.365 

.273 

Lime (CaO) 

1.468 

.538 

.448 

Potash  . . . ( K > O)  ....  

.000 

000 

.000 

3.617 

Iron  Peroxid...(Fe203> 

.482 

4.823 

Nos.  44,  45  and  46  are  from  Lopez  Island.  The  most  remarkable 
thing  about  these  samples  is  the  absence  of  weighable  amounts 
of  potash.  Such  surprising  analytical  results  with  reference  to 
this  element,  were  not  accepted  until  re-determinations  had  shown 
their  accuracy.  While  the  potash  percentages  are  as  a rule  low 
in  Western  Washington,  we  are  entirely  unable  to  account  for 
this  unparalleled  case.  It  goes  without  saying  that  these  soils  are 
not  highly  productive.  Nos.  45  and  46  are  described  as  the  same 
soil,  the  former  having  been  in  cultivation  two  years,  the  latter 
being  new.  Forty  per  cent  of  the  total  nitrogen  in  No.  45  is  con- 
tained in  the  humus,  and  only  29.5  per  cent  of  the  total  in  No. 
46  is  humic  nitrogen.  As  in  case  of  Nos.  119  and  120,  this  also 
seems  to  indicate  that  cultivation  tends  to  make  available  the 
nitrogen  contained  in  the  unhumified  matter.  If  these  samples 
from  Lopez  Island  are  accurately  described  we  have  the  anomaly 
of  a cultivated  soil  containing  times  as  much  humus  as  the 
same  soil  in  virgin  state. 


OKANOGAN  COUNTY. 


71 

74 

76 

77 

Humus 

.520 

1.490 

2.900 

1.222 

Total  Nitrogen  in  soil 

.079 

.051 

.256 

.102 

Organic  Nitrogen  in  soil 

.018 

.037 

.055 

.063 

Nitrogen  in  humus 

Phosphoric  Acid  in  humus 

3.410 

.005 

2.500 

1.900 

5.160 

Organic  matter 

5.250 

8.900 

6.3  0 

3.527 

Phosphoric  Acid  (P2O5) 

.112 

.288 

.096 

.112 

T.itne (CaO) 

2.084 

4.679 

.714 

.614 

Potash  (K9O) 

.341 

.347 

.006 

.019 

Iron  Peroxid....  (Fe203) 

1.598 

1.808 

3.466 

1.748 

Nos.  71  and  74  are  from  Lakeside  and  are  described  by  C.  W. 
Feickert  as  follows  ; “ No.  1 (Lab’y  No.  71)  had  a dense  growth 

of  rye-grass,  and  No.  2 (Lab’y  No.  74)  was  taken  a few  hundred 


IO 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


feet  from  No.  i . I have  very  poor  success  on  either.  All  plants 
on  No.  i are  very  sickly  and  yellow.  It  has  grown  fairly  good 
grain,  and  has  been  in  cultivation  five  years.  This  spring  I 
planted  an  orchard  on  it  and  almost  all  of  sixty  trees  will  die. 
It  is  sub-irrigated  and  has  good  natural  drainage.  On  No.  2 I 
planted  strawberries,  and  those  that  survive  are  as  yellow  as 
gold.” 

This  description  which  indicates  a lack  of  nitrogen  available 
for  plant  use,  is  in  harmony  with  the  percentages  of  total  and 
humic  nitrogen  which  are  much  lower  than  usually  found  in  this 
state.  These  soils  are  undoubtedly  suffering  from  nitrogen 
hungriness  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  they  are  highly  calcareous, 
and  the  humic  nitrogen  is  up  to  Hilgard’s  standard  of  2.5  per 
cent.  It  is  noticeable  that  their  iron  percentages  are  very  low. 
This  may  have  some  significance.  Nos.  76  and  77  are  also  from 
near  Take  Chelan.  No  statement  was  made  concerning  their 
fertility.  No.  76  is  doubtless  lacking  in  available  nitrogen  as 
well  as  in  potash.  The  organic  nitrogen  is  only  20  per  cent,  of 
the  total  — and  as  the  amount  of  nitrates,  etc.  is  very  small,  a 
large  proportion  of  the  total  soil  nitrogen  is  locked  up  in  the  un- 
humified portions  of  the  organic  matter.  No.  77  has  63  per  cent, 
of  its  total  nitrogen  in  the  humus. 

WHITMAN  COUNTY. 


5 

72 

73 

Humus 

.850 

2.486 

1.190 

Total  Nitrogen  in  soil 

.no 

.173 

.151 

Organic  Nitrogen  in  soil 

.024 

.059 

.018 

Nitrogen  in  humus 

2.780 

2.390 

1.490 

Phosphoric  Acid  in  humus 

.063 

.036 

Organic  matter 

3.612 

.142 

8.733 

5.960 

Phosphoric  Acid  (P2O5) 

.361 

.121 

Pime (CaO) 

1.081 

.456 

.514 

Potash ( K 2 O) 

.635 

.471 

.332 

Iron  Peroxid (Fe2O  i) 

4.554 

3.828 

4.220 

No.  5 is  from  the  College  farm  at  Pullman.  It  is  a very  pro- 
ductive soil,  showing  in  field  tests  no  lack  of  nitrogen,  although 
the  percentage  of  organic  nitrogen  (.024)  is  lower  than  in  some 
soils  less  productive.  Nos.  72  and  73  are  also  productive  soils  in 
spite  of  their  low  pertentages  of  nitrogen  in  the  humus.  These 
samples  are  from  Garfield.  The  organic  nitrogen  in  these  three 
soils  represent  from  8.5  per  cent,  to  33  per  cent,  of  the  total  — a 
very  low  percentage. 


Bulletin  23 — Nitrogen  Content  of  Soils  and  Humus . 


11 


WHATCOM  COUNTY. 


75 

78 

79 

139 

140 

141 

142 

Humus 

3.292 

23.450 

2.828 

1.450 

2.314 

.386 

2.050 

Total  Nitrogen  in  soil 

.250 

1.064 

.182 

.154 

.184 

.020 

.204 

Organic  Nitrogen  in  soil 

.072 

.904 

.058 

.071 

.067 

.015 

.134 

Nitrogen  in  humus 

2.180 

4.013 

2.055 

4.890 

3.980 

2.890 

6.530 

Phosphoric  Acid  in  humus 

.077 

.208 

.054 

.036 

.063 

.017 

.085 

Organic  matter 

10.733 

46.367 

9.067 

6.293 

7.860 

2.957 

7.480 

Phosphoric  Acid  (P2O5) 

.294 

.285 

.067 

,139 

.084 

.144 

.265 

Time (CaO) 

.324 

.409 

.359 

1.234 

1.044 

1.326 

.891 

Potash (K-iO) 

.006 

.142 

.021 

.316 

.483 

.275 

.319 

Iron  Peroxid (Fe>C>3) 

5.365 

.814 

• 3.919 

6.029 

4.601 

4.823 

16.398 

Nos.  75,  78  and  79  are  from  Mountain  View.  No.  78  was 
taken  from  a peat  marsh  which  had  been  burnt  off  to  a depth  of 
four  inches.  Nearly  90  per  cent,  of  the  total  nitrogen  is  found  in 
the  humus.  Concerning  Nos.  75  and  79  it  was  written : “ Peas 

and  clover  make  splendid  crops  on  this  soil  without  manure  or 
other  fertilizers.  Carrots,  potatoes  and  rutabagas  grow  fair  crops 
— wheat,  oats,  and  timothy  almost  a failure.” 

While  Nos.  72  and  73  are  exceptions  to  the  statement  of  Hil- 
gard  that  soils  are  nitrogen  hungry  where  their  Ipimus  contains 
less  than  2.5  per  cent,  of  nitrogen,  Nos.  75  and  79  are  confirma- 
tory of  it.  The  fact  that  nitrogen  fixing  plants  like  the  legumes 
thrive  upon  a soil  that  refuses  to  produce  cereals,  is  indicative  of 
a lack  of  available  nitrogen  stored  in  the  soil.  This  fact  of  ex- 
perience is  confirmed  by  the  analysis  which  shows  only  a little 
more  than  2 per  cent,  of  nitrogen  in  the  humus  — this  organic 
nitrogen  being  28.8  per  cent,  of  the  total  in  No.  75,  and  32  per 
cent,  in  No.  79. 

Nos.  139,  140,  141  and  142  are  from  Sumas  City.  While  they 
are  all  somewhat  deficient  in  potash,  as  shown  not  only  by 
analysis  but  also  by  the  crops  grown,  the  character  of  the  crops  do 
not  give  any  indication  of  a lack  of  nitrogen.  This  fact  of  ex- 
perience could  be  predicted  from  the  analytical  results  which 
show  not  only  a large  percentage  of  nitrogen  in  the  humus,  but 
also,  with  the  exception  of  No.  141,  a large  amount  of  total 
nitrogen.  In  the  case  of  No.  14 1 however,  75  per  cent,  of  the 
total  nitrogen  is  organic.  The  high  percentage  of  humic  nitrogen 
in  No.  142  might  perhaps  be  expected  from  the  fact  that  it  is 
from  a creek  bottom. 


12 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


KITSAP  COUNTY. 


Humus 

Total  Nitrogen  in  soil 

Organic  Nitrogen  in  soil 

Nitrogen  in  humus 

Phosphoric  Acid  in  humus. 

Organic  matter 

Phosphoric  Acid  (P2O5) 

Time (CaO) 

Potash (K20) 

Iron  Peroxid (Fe20.5) 


80 


32.150 

1.221 

.046 

1.420 

.009 

74.700 

.048 

1.970 

.085 

.241 


81 


.432 

.059 

.012 

2.736 

.003 

3.080 

.019 

.308 

.010 

2.126 


124 


.780 

.098 

.034 

4.390 

.014 

5.580 

.026 

.659 

.111 

2.622 


126 


1.120 

.092 

.089 

8.003 

.028 

5.960 
.045 
.534 
.054 
3. 105 


Nos.  80  and  81  were  sent  from  Port  Orchard,  and  Nos.  124  and 
126  from  Sidney.  No.  80  is  a peat  soil  having  only  a small  pro- 
portion of  organic  nitrogen.  Practical  experiments  in  Kitsap 
county  have  shown  that  the  soils  are  generally  more  benefitted 
by  potash  and  phosphoric  acid  fertilizers  than  by  those  contain- 
ing nitrogen.  The  reason  for  this  result  of  field  tests  is  shown  by 
the  analysis  of  Nos.  81,  124  and  126  — the  potash  and  phos- 
phoric acid  being  deficient  while  the  percentage  of  nitrogen  in  the 
humus  is  satisfactory  although  the  total  nitrogen  is  not  present  in 
large  amounts.  The  humic  nitrogen  in  No.  126  is  abnormally 
high  for  the  Puget  Sound  region. 


SKAGIT  COUNTY. 


82 

83 

84 

85 

86 

100 

101 

Humus 

.600 

.180 

.250 

.328 

.596 

2.990 

2.740 

Total  Nitrogen  in  soil 

.142 

.102 

.051 

.079 

.185 

.307 

.366 

Organic  Nitrogen  in  soil 

.041 

.022 

.022 

.028 

.041 

.167 

.287 

Nitrogen  in  humus 

6.895 

12.040 

8.668 

8.410 

6.940 

5.600 

10.460 

Phosphoric  Acid  in  humus 

.015 

trace 

.006 

.013 

.015 

.068 

.018 

Organic  matter 

4.367 

1.500 

1.867 

2.250 

4.760 

9.233 

8.600 

Phosphoric  Acid  (P2O5) 

.089 

.070 

.045 

.144 

.267 

.304 

.205 

Lime (CaO) 

1.049 

.832 

.891 

.891 

1.081 

.474 

.518 

Potash (K9O)  

.111 

.057 

.006 

.014 

.129 

.186 

.028 

Iron  Peroxid (Fe203) 

3.979 

1.507 

1.718 

2.140 

3.165 

6.039 

5.546 

Nos.  82.,  83,  84,  85  and  86  are  tide  lands  sent  from  Anacortes. 
They  are  not  to  be  considered  as  normal  soils,  but  we  insert  them 
as  a matter  of  interest. 

Nos.  100  and  101  are  from  La  Conner.  These  two  samples  are 
interesting.  They  were  both  taken  from  the  same  field  which 
had  grown  oats  for  seventeen  consecutive  years  without  the  use 
of  fertilizers.  The  oat  straw  has  been  burned  each  year.  No. 
100  was  taken  from  a spot  of  about  an  acre  upon  which  cabbages 
turn  yellow,  and  will  not  head.  The  remainder  of  the  field  pro- 


Bulletin  23 — Nitrogen  Co7itent  of  Soils  and  Humus. 


13 


duces  excellent  cabbages.  The  land  was  reclaimed  by  dykes  from 
both  salt  water  and  fresh  river  water  overflows — and  the  entire 
field  presents  the  same  physical  conditions.  We  were  requested 
to  ascertain  if  possible  the  cause  of  the  peculiarity  of  No.  100  to- 
ward cabbages.  Both  samples  grow  oats  and  grass  equally  well. 
The  chemical  analysis  shows  that  so  far  as  potash,  phosphoric 
acid,  and  lime  are  concerned,  No.  100  is  the  stronger  soil,  having 
one-half  more  phosphoric  acid  and  seven  times  as  much  potash  as 
No.  101,  although  in  both  cases  the  percentage  of  potash  is  very 
low.  It  will  be  seen  however  that  in  No.  100  the  humic  nitro- 
gen is  only  a little  more  than  one-half  as  much  as  in  No.  101, 
and  to  this  fact  we  must  ascribe  (in  the  absence  of  any  other 
apparent  cause)  its  failure  to  produce  cabbages,  although  from 
theory  one  would  not  expect  it  to  be  lacking  in  available  nitrogen. 
Of  the  total  nitrogen  in  No.  100,  54.4  per  cent,  is  in  the  humus, 
while  No.  101  has  78.4  per  cent,  of  the  total  in  the  humus. 


YAKIMA  COUNTY. 


91 

92 

93 

94 

137 

Humus  

.084 

.128 

.148 

.182 

.150 

Total  Nitrogen  in  soil 

.059 

.051 

.032 

.055 

.032 

Organic  Nitrogen  in  soil 

.004 

.004 

.004 

.008 

.010 

Nitrogen  in  humus 

4.700 

3.080 

2 660 

4.330 

6.570 

Phosphoric  Acid  in  humus 

.010 

.004 

.010 

.003 

.008 

Organic  matter 

3.533 

2.713 

1.733 

2.513 

1.560 

Phosphoric  Acid  (P205) 

.128 

.174 

.141 

.153 

.029 

Lime (CaO) 

2.389 

.909 

1.259 

1.469 

1.154 

Potash (K20) 

.189 

.149 

.310 

.047 

.455 

Iron  Peroxid (Fe203) 

6.299 

7.053 

3.316 

6.330 

4.521 

Nos.  91,  92,  93  and  94  are  supposed  to  fairly  represent  the 
different  kinds  of  soil  found  in  the  Sunnyside  district.  This  is 
an  arid  region,  and  the  most  notable  characteristic  of  the  soils  is 
the  low  percentage  of  humus  ; and  hence,  although  the  organic 
nitrogen  is  only  a very  small  portion  of  the  total,  yet  it  con- 
stitutes from  2.6  to  4.7  per  cent,  of  the  humus.  According  to 
Hilgard  these  would  be  very  low  percentages  for  such  a dry 
region.  The  samples  are  from  uncultivated  soils,  now  covered 
with  sagebrush.  No.  137  i£  also  a sample  of  virgin  soil  taken 
from  the  Kennewick  valley.  The  amount  of  total  nitrogen  is 
too  low  in  all  of  these  samples.  Field  experiments  in  the  Ken- 
newick valley  have  shown  that  the  soil  is  deficient  in  available 
nitrogen. 


H 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


KING  COUNTY. 


Humus 

Total  Nitrogen  in  soil 

Organic  Nitrogen  in  soil... 

Nitrogen  in  humus 

Phosphoric  Acid  in  humus. 

Organic  matter 

Phosphoric  Acid  (P205) 

Lime (CaO) 

Potash (K20) 

Iron  Peroxid (Fe2C>3) 


102 

129 

179 

2.640 

.690 

18.100 

.269 

.067 

.512 

.160 

.050 

.403 

6.050 

7.190 

2.228 

7.990 

4.213 

25.087 

.057 

.070 

.390 

.389 

.599 

.404 

.004 

.057 

.142 

3.105 

3.105 

1.398 

No.  102  is  a sample  from  soil  that  has  been  cultivated  ten  years 
or  more.  Its  fertility  is  declining,  due,  as  the  analysis  shows,  to 
a lack  of  potash  and  phosphoric  acid.  The  nitrogen  percentage 
is  satisfactory.  No.  129  is  virgin  soil.  The  6ame  soil  when 
cropped  requires  stable  manure  to  make  it  productive.  Its  total 
nitrogen  is  low,  but  about  75  per  cent,  of  it  is  found  in  the  humus. 
No.  179  is  from  a stratum  of  reddish  material,  nine  inches  thick, 
lying  six  inches  under  a black  soil  near  Green  Lake.  It  is  very 
hard.  The  analysis  shows  it  to  be  very  rich  in  humus  and 
nitrogen,  80  per  cent,  of  the  latter  being  organic. 


Thurston  Co. 

Snohomish  Co. 

184 

176 

103 

177 

Humus 

3.822 

5.793 

3.006 

.158 

2.150 

Total  Nitrogen  in  poll 

.189 

.119 

.407 

.138 

Organic  Nitrogen  in  soil 

.311 

.039 

.020 

Nitrogen  in  limn  ns 

3.120 

5.373 

1.311 

.047 

.918 

Phosphoric  Acid  in  humus 

Organic  matter 

11.193 

8.627 

6.307 

Phosphoric  Acid  CP0O5) 

.320 

.176 

.237 

T.ime  CPaO) 

.506 

.414 

.704 

Potash (K9O) 

.076 

.051 

.218 

Iron  Peroxid  (Fe^Os) 

3.778 

4 039 

4.730 

THURSTON  COUNTY. 

No.  184  came  from  near  Olympia.  It  is  a type  of  soil  in  which 
many  orchards  are  growing — especially  prune  orchards.  A large 
number  of  the  trees  five  years  old  have  recently  died.  The  soil 
shows  an  abundance  of  available  nitrogen.  The  complete  an- 
alysis of  this  sample  has  not  yet  been  made.  No.  176  is  also  a 
sample  of  the  prairie  soil  around  Olympia.  It  contains  a very 
large  amount  of  nitrogen,  75  per  cent,  of  which  is  contained  in 
the  humus. 


Bulletin  23 — Nitrogen  Content  of  Soils  and  Humus.  13 


SNOHOMISH  COUNTY. 

No.  103  is  from  near  Port  Gardner,  and  is  described  as  poor 
land  upon  which  nothing  can  be  raised  without  the  use  of  fer- 
tilizers. It  shows  a very  low  percentage  of  nitrogen  in  the 
humus,  No.  177  is  from  Cedarhome  and  is  described  as  being 
from  an  old  burn,  all  full  of  ferns,  that  will  not  produce  grain. 
Grows  good  crops  of  red  clover  and  alsike  for  about  three  years, 
and  after  plowing  and  seeding  to  clover  and  alsike  again,  it 
produces  very  small  crops.  This  soil  is  undoubtedly  suffering 
for  want  of  nitrogen.  The  percentage  of  nitrogen  in  the  humus 
is  the  lowest  I have  observed.  A re- determination  served  to  con- 
firm the  accuracy  of  the  analysis.  The  supply  of  total  nitrogen 
is  fair,  but  only  15  per  cent,  of  it  is  organic. 


Island  County 

Clallam 

County 

Clarke 

County 

Pierce 
1 County 

105 

122 

111 

162 

37 

Humus 

51.000 

3.341 

1.340 

3.885 

.710 

Total  Nitrogen  in  soil 

1 576 

.230 

.210 

.189 

.016 

Organic  Nitrogen  in  soil 

1.234 

.146 

.030 

.106 

.008 

Nitrogen  in  humus 

2.420 

4.360 

2.250 

2.738 

1.110 

Phosphoric  Acid 

.009 

.036 

.079 

Organic  matter 

79.217 

11.810 

7.233 

12.350 

4.320 

Phosphoric  Acid  (P2O5) 

.067 

.344 

.240 

.137 

.205 

Time (CaO) 

.564 

1.214 

.524 

.333 

.569 

Potash (KoO) 

.145 

.625 

.154 

.335 

.003 

Iron  Peroxid (FeoC^) 

.181 

4.105 

5.094 

10.531 

3.5,57 

ISLAND  COUNTY. 

No.  105  is  peat  soil  such  as  is  used  for  agricultural  purposes 
near  Livingston  Bay.  It  does  not  produce  well.  While  the 
organic  nitrogen  in  this  peat  is  nearly  80  per  cent,  of  the  total, 
still  it  constitutes  a little  less  than  2.5  per  cent,  of  the  humus. 
Such  a soil  however,  with  1.234  Per  cent,  available  nitrogen  can- 
not well  be  deficient  in  that  element.  No.  122  is  from  Whidby 
Island  and  is  theoretically  the  strongest  soil  in  every  respect  that 
we  have  analysed  from  Western  Washington.  Its  nitrogen  con- 
tent is  excellent,  about  60  per  cent,  of  it  being  organic.  It  is  a 
productive  soil  and  is  growing  fruit  successfully. 

CLALLAM  COUNTY. 

No.  1 1 1 is  from  Port  Angeles.  It  is  a virgin  soil.  Its  avail- 
able nitrogen  is  low  and  this  explains  the  exceedingly  beneficial 


i6 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Statio?i. 


results  of  stable  manure  when  applied  to  the  soils  in  this  vicinity. 
The  organic  nitrogen  is  less  than  15  per  cent,  of  the  total. 

CLARKE  COUNTY. 

No.  162  was  sent  from  Fisher.  Its  nitrogen  content  is  good. 

PIERCE  COUNTY. 

No.  37  is  from  Fern  Hill.  It  is  a weak  soil  in  every  respect 
save  in  phosphoric  acid.  Its  total  nitrogen  is  very  small  (50  per 
cent,  of  it  being  available)  and  the  organic  nitrogen  is  only  1 
per  cent,  of  the  humus.  It  is  described  as  a poor  soil. 


Bulletin  23 — Nitrogen  Content  of  Soils  and  Humus.  17 


As  mentioned  in  the  preceding  pages  there  exists  a striking 
relation  between  some  of  these  analytical  results.  In  many 
instances  the  result  of  multiplying  the  percentage  of  total  soil 
nitrogen  by  55  and  dividing  the  product  by  the  percentage  of 
humus  gives  a figure  which  approximates  closely  to  the  percent- 
age of  nitrogen  in  the  humus  as  determined  by  analysis.  Stated 
in  a simpler  form,  in  these  cases  the  organic  or  humic  nitrogen 
is  55  per  cent,  of  the  total  nitrogen.  We  state  the  relation  in 
the  more  complex  form  because  the  standard  has  been  made  by 
Hilgard  in  percentage  of  nitrogen  in  the  humus.  The  relation 
is  expressed  by  the  formula  C = p_.x  55  where  C ==  percentage  of 
nitrogen  in  humus  ; b = percentage  of  total  soil  nitrogen  ; a = 
percentage  of  humus.  To  facilitate  comparison  we  summarize 
the  soils  discussed,  giving  humus,  total  nitrogen,  organic  nitrogen, 
nitrogen  in  humus,  ratio  of  organic  to  total  nitrogen,  and  the 
result  of  applying  the  above  formula. 


Serial  No. 

Percent- 

age 

of 

Humus 

in 

Soil 

Percent- 

age 

of 

Nitrogen 

in 

Humus 

to 

to 

X 

II 

0 

Percent- 

age 

of 

Total 

Nitrogen 

in 

Soil 

Percent- 

age 

of 

Organic 

Nitrogen 

in 

Soil 

Percent- 

age 

of 

Organic 
Nitrogen 
of  Total 
Nitrogen 

Percent- 

age 

of 

Phos- 
phoric 
Acid  in 
Humus 

Percent- 

age 

of 

Phos- 
phoric 
Acid  in 
Soil 

1 Percentage  of  Phos- 
phoric Acid  in  Hu- 
mus of  Total  Phos- 
phoric Acid 

30 

2.760 

5.000 

2.272 

.154 

.138 

89.6 

.265 

114 

1.469 

4.830 

4.905 

.131 

.071 

54.2 

.096 

115 

.182 

2.160 

3 290 

.012 

.004 

33.3 

.009 

.153 

5.88 

119 

3.300 

7.760 

5.583 

.335 

.256 

76.4 

.043 

.070 

61.40 

120 

3.170 

6.760 

7.183 

.414 

.214 

51.7 

.029 

.096 

30.20 

37 

.710 

1.110 

1.240 

.016 

.008 

50.0 

184 

3.822 

3.120 

2.719 

.189 

.119 

62.9 

42 

1.648 

1.195 

5.773 

.173 

.020 

11.5 

.001 

.109 

.92 

43 

.420 

4.220 

13.360 

.102 

.018 

17.6 

.085 

175 

5.010 

3.366 

2.119 

.193 

.169 

87.5 

.014 

.089 

15.70 

44 

29.810 

3.734 

4.039 

2.189 

1.111 

50.7 

.029 

.105 

27.62 

45 

3.570 

2.732 

3.762 

.244 

.097 

39.8 

.075 

.365 

20.56 

46 

1.062 

3.980 

3.677 

.071 

.021 

29.6 

.105 

.273 

38.46 

71 

.520 

3.410 

8.356 

.079 

.018 

22  8 

.005 

.112 

4.46 

74 

1.490 

2.500 

1.883 

.051 

.037 

72.5 

.288 

76 

2.900 

1.900 

4.855 

.256 

.055 

21.5 

.096 

77 

1.222 

5.160 

4.591 

.102 

.063 

61.8 

.112 

5 

.850 

2.780 

7.118 

.110 

.024 

21.8 

.142 

72 

2.486 

2,390 

3.479 

.173 

.059 

34.1 

.063 

.361 

17.45 

73 

1.190 

1.490 

6.055 

.151 

.018 

11.9 

.036 

.121 

30.00 

75 

3.292 

2.180 

3.800 

.250 

.072 

28.8 

.077 

.294 

26.19 

78 

23.450 

4.013 

2.495 

1.064 

.904 

84.9 

.208 

.285 

73.00 

79 

2.828 

2.055 

3.218 

.182 

.058 

31.8 

.054 

.067 

80.60 

139 

1 .450 

4.890 

5.841 

.154 

.071 

46.2 

.036 

.139 

25.90 

140 

2.314 

2.890 

4.373 

.184 

.067 

36.4 

.063 

.084 

75.00 

141 

.386 

3.980 

2.850 

.020 

.015 

75.0 

.017 

.144 

11.80 

142 

2.050 

6.530 

5.463 

.204 

.134 

65.7 

.085 

.265 

32.08 

i8 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


Serial  No. 

Percent- 

age 

of 

Humus 
in  Soil 

Percent- 

age 

of 

Nitrogen 

in 

Humus 

10 

10 

X 

JO 

O 

Oj 

Percent- 

age 

of 

Total 

Nitrogen 

in 

Soil 

Percent- 

age 

of 

Organic 

Nitrogen 

in 

Soil 

Percent- 

age 

of 

Organic 
Nitrogen 
of  Total 
Nitrogen 

Percent- 

age 

of 

Phos- 
phoric 
Acid  in 
Humus 

Percent- 

age 

of 

Phos- 
phoric 
Acid  in 
Soil 

Percentage  of  Phos- 
phoric Acid  in  Hu- 
mus of  Total  Phos- 
phoric Acid 

80 

32.150 

1.420 

2.088 

1.221 

.460 

37.7 

.009 

.048 

18.75 

81 

.432 

2.736 

7.512 

.059 

.012 

20.3 

.003 

.019 

15.79 

124 

.780 

4.390 

6.910 

.098 

.034 

34.7 

.014 

.026 

53.85 

126 

1.120 

8.003 

4.518 

.092 

' .089 

96.7 

.028 

.045 

62.22 

82 

.600 

6.895 

13.020 

.142 

.041 

28.8 

.015 

.089 

16.85 

83 

.180 

12.040 

31.170 

.102 

.022 

21.5 

trace 

.070 

84 

.250 

8.668 

11.220 

.051 

.022 

43.1 

.006 

.045 

13.33 

85 

.328 

8.410 

13.250 

.079 

.028 

35.4 

.013 

.144 

9.03 

86 

.596 

6.940 

17.  070 

.185 

.041 

22.2 

.015 

.267 

5.61 

100 

2.990 

5.600 

5.647 

.307 

.167 

54.4 

.068 

.304 

22.36 

101 

2.740 

10.460 

7.346 

.366 

.287 

78.4 

.018 

.205 

8.78 

91 

.084 

4.700 

38.630 

.059 

.004 

6.8 

.010 

.128 

7.81 

92 

.128 

3.080 

21.910 

.051 

.004 

7.8 

.004 

.174 

2.30 

93 

.148 

2.660 

11.900 

.032 

.004 

12.5 

.010 

.141 

7.09 

94 

.182 

4.330 

16.620 

.055 

.008 

14.5 

.003 

.153 

1.96 

137 

.150 

6.570 

11.730 

.032 

.010 

31.3 

.008 

.029 

30.70 

102 

2.640 

6.050 

5.604 

.269 

.160 

59.5 

.057 

129 

.690 

7 190 

5.340 

.067 

.050 

74.6 

.070 

179 

18.100 

2.228 

1.554 

.512 

.403 

78.7 

.390 

176 

5.793 

5.373 

3.864 

.407 

.311 

76.4 

.320 

103 

3.006 

1.311 

2.628 

.158 

.039 

24.7 

.047 

.176 

26.70 

177 

2.150 

.918 

3.530 

.138 

.020 

14.5 

.237 

105 

51.000 

2.420 

1. 

700 

1.576 

1.234 

78.3 

.009 

.067 

13.43 

122 

3.341 

4.360 

3.786 

.230 

.146 

63.5 

.344 

111 

1.340 

2.250 

8.620 

.210 

.030 

14.3 

.036 

.240 

15.00 

162 

3.885 

2.738 

2 676 

.189 

.106 

56.1 

.079 

.137 

57.60 

In  the  following  table,  the  soils  examined  are  classified  in 
three  groups.  The  first  group  contains  those  soils  in  which  the 
application  of  the  above  formula  produces  results  which  are 
within  i per  cent,  of  the  percentage  of  nitrogen  in  the  humus  as 
determined  by  analysis.  The  second  group  includes  those  soils 
where  the  varation  is  greater  than  i and  less  than  2 per  cent. 
In  the  third  group  are  found  those  soils  in  which  the  variations 
are  greater  than  2 per  cent.  There  are  nineteen  samples  in  the 
first  group,  ten  in  the  second,  and  twenty-four  in  the  third. 


phoric  Acid 


Bulletin  23 — Nitrogen  Content  of  Soils  and  Humus. 


19 


Serial 

No. 

Percent- 

age 

of 

Nitrogen 

in 

Humus 

io[ 

10I 

x * 
^ 1 

II 

0 

Serial 

No. 

Percentage 

of 

Nitrogen 

in 

Humus 

10 

10 

X 

,Q 

11 

a 

Gj 

Serial 

No. 

Percentage 

of 

Nitrogen 

in 

Humus 

10 

10 

X 

*0 

11 

0 

c3 

114 

4.830 

4.905 

175 

3.366 

2.119 

119 

7.760 

5.583 

37 

1.110 

1.240 

78 

4.013 

2.495 

30 

5.000 

2.272 

184 

3.120 

2.719  1 

141 

3.980 

2.850 

101 

10  460 

7.346 

44 

3.734 

4.039 

129 

7.190 

5.340 

42 

1.195 

5.773 

46 

3.980 

3.677 

176 

5.373 

3.864 

43 

4.220 

13.360 

74 

2.500 

1.883 

75 

2.180 

3.800 

71 

3.410 

8.356 

77 

5.160 

4.591 

79 

2.055 

3.218 

76 

1.900 

4.855 

142 

6.530 

5.463 

103 

1.311 

2.628 

5 

2.780 

7.118 

80 

1.420 

2.088 

115 

2.160 

3.290 

73 

1.490 

6.055 

100 

5.600 

5.647 

140 

2.890 

4.373 

81 

2.736 

7.512 

102 

6.050 

5.604 

124 

4.390 

6.910 

179 

2.228 

1.554 

126 

8.003 

4.518 

105 

2 420 

1.700 

91 

4.700 

38.630 

122 

4.360 

3.786 

92 

3.080 

21.910 

162 

2.738 

2.676 

93 

2.660 

11.900 

120 

6.760 

7.183 

94 

4.330 

16.620 

45 

2.732 

3.762 

137 

6.570 

11.730 

139 

4.890 

5.841 

177 

.918 

3.530 

72 

2.390 

3.479 

111 

2.250 

8.620 

82 

6.895 

13.020 

83 

12.040 

31.170 

84 

8.668 

11.220 

■ 

85 

8.410 

13.250 

86 

6.940 

17  070 

We  simply  state  this  relation  as  we  have  found  it  in  nineteen 
cases  out  of  fifty-three,  without  attempting  to  draw  any  con- 
clusions from  it.  It  is  a very  important  fact  however  that  all  but 
three  (Nos.  45,  100  and  102)  of  the  samples  in  the  first  group, 
are  virgin  soils.  In  the  second  group  No.  115  is  a sub-soil,  and 
all  the  rest  are  virgin  soils.  In  the  third  group  Nos.  119,  30,  101, 
71,  73,  81,  124,  126,  are  soils  that  have  been  under  cultivation 
for  some  time.  Nos.  42  and  43  come  from  a region  of  100  inches 
annual  rainfall.  Nos.  91,  92,  93,  94  and  137  are  arid  soils  in 
which  the  humus  is  less  than  0.2  per  cent.  No.  177  is  from  an 
old  burn.  Nos.  82,  83,  84,  85  and  86  are  tide  lands.  It  is  more 
than  probable  that  if  there  were  a definite  relation  in  normal  soils 
between  the  total  and  organic  nitrogen , it  would  not  hold  for  any  of 
the  soils  in  the  third  group  except  Nos  5,  76  and  in. 


We  expect  to  continue  our  work  along  the  line  discussed,  and 
believe  further  investigations  will  show  that  there  is  at  least  as 
definite  a relation  between  the  total  and  organic  nitrogen  in 
normal  soils,  as  there  is  between  the  organic  nitrogen  and  the 
humus. 


WASHINGTON  STATE  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE  AND 
SCHOOL  OF  SCIENCE 


Experiment  Station 


PULLMAN,  WASHINGTON 


Bulletin  24 


DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE 


THE  ACID  TEST  FOR  MILK  AND  CREAM 
By  W.  J.  Spillman 


OCTOBER,  1S96 


All  bulletins  of  this  station  sent  free  to  citizens  of  the  state 
on  application  to  the  Director. 


THE  CALVERT  CO.,  716  FIRST  AVE.,  SEATTLE 


THE  AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


BOARD  OF  CONTROL. 


E.  S.  Ingraham,  President , - Seattle 

J.  W.  Arrasmith,  Vice-President , -------  Colfax 

J.  W.  Stearns,  Treasurer , ---------  Tekoa 

H.  S.  Beandford,  ----------  Walla  Walla 

T.  R.  Tannatt,  Farmington 

STATION  STAFF. 


Enoch  A.  Bryan,  - - -----  Director 

W.  J.  Spieeman,  - ---------  Agriculturist 

C.  V.  Piper,  - - -----  Botanist  and  Entomologist 

Eeton  Fuemer,  - -----------  Chemist 

John  A.  Baemer,  ----------  Horticulturist 

S.  B.  Neeson, ------  Veterinarian 

R.  W.  Doane,  ----------  Assistant  Zoologist 

W.  H.  Heieeman, - - - - Assistant  Chemist 


THE  ACID  TEST  FOR  MILK  AND  CREAM 


By  W.  J.  Spillman 


The;  Cause  of  the  Development  of  Acid  in  Milk. 


The  sourness  of  sour  milk  is  due  to  the  presence  of  lactic  acid. 
This  acid  is  formed  from  the  milk  sugar,  or  lactose,  always  pres- 
ent in  milk,  there  being  usually  about  5 lbs.  of  lactose  in  100  lbs. 
of  milk.  The  formation  of  lactic  acid  begins  immediately  after 
the  milk  is  drawn,  but  milk  does  not  smell  or  taste  sour  until  the 
amount  of  acid  present  amounts  to  about  three- tenths  to  four- 
tenths  of  one  per  cent.  The  milk  coagulates  or  clabbers  with  a 
slight  increase  of  acid  beyond  this  point.  Heat  aids  coagulation  ; 
so  much  so  that  milk  containing  less  than  three-tenths  per  cent, 
may  coagulate  when  heated  nearly  to  the  boiling  point. 

The  conversion  of  milk  sugar  into  lactic  acid  is  done  by 
bacteria,  which  are  minute  vegetable  organisms  that  get  into  milk 
from  the  air,  from  small  particles  of  dried  manure  falling  from 
the  cow’s  flanks  and  udder  during  milking,  and  from  the  milk 
vessels  themselves,  especially  if  the  vessels  are  not  well  washed 
and  scalded.  Some  kinds  of  bacteria  are  desirable  in  milk  that 
is  to  be  made  into  butter  or  cheese  ; in  fact,  they  are  necessary  ; 
but  on  account  of  their  rapid  increase  in  numbers  the  milk  must 
be  carefully  and  intelligently  handled  in  order  that  these  little 
friends  of  the  dairyman  may  not  do  more  damage  than  they  do 
good.  These  bacteria  cause  many  other  changes  in  milk,  but 
further  discussion  of  this  subject  must  be  reserved  for  another 
place. 


4 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


Necessity  of  Such  a Test. 

In  handling  milk  and  cream  it  is  often  desirable,  *and  indeed 
frequently  necessary  in  order  to  secure  satisfactory  results,  to 
know  how  far  the  work  of  these  bacteria  has  proceeded  ; for  in- 
stance, it  has  been  found  that  if  cream  is  allowed  to  get  too  ripe, 
the  flavor  of  the  butter  is  injured,  while  if  churned  too  sweet, 
there  is  a heavy  loss  of  fat  in  the  butter  milk,  unless  extra  pre- 
cautions are  taken  to  churn  at  a lower  temperature  than  usual. 
Again,  it  is  a well  known  fact  that  if  milk  be  heated  when  just 
on  the  point  of  souring,  it  will  coagulate ; now  milk  is  usually 
heated  before  being  run  through  the  separator,  and  milk  that  is 
nearly  sour  will  give  great  trouble  and  loss  by  clogging  up  the 
separator,  besides  being  sure  to  sour  immediately  and  spoil  all  the 
milk  in  the  skim  milk  vat.  In  making  cheese  too,  we  must  have 
milk  that  is  not  any  where  near  turning,  in  order  to  make  a fine 
quality  of  cheese,  and  if  we  wish  to  pasteurize  (kill  the  bacteria 
by  heat)  milk  or  cream  so  as  to  keep  it  several  days  or  send  it  to 
distant  customers,  we  must  have  the  very  sweetest  milk  to  work 
with.  It  has  been  found  in  practice  that  the  acidity,  or  sourness 
of  milk,  is  a very  reliable  index  of  its  bacteriological  condition. 

It  is  therefore  very  desirable  to  have  some  simple  means  of  de- 
termining the  acidity  of  milk  and  cream  at  all  stages  of  their 
history,  from  the  milk  pail  to  the  churn  or  cheese  vat,  or  pasteur- 
izing room.  The  acid  test  does  this,  and  it  is  so  simple  that 
any  one  can  learn  the  process  in  a few  minutes,  while  the  test 
itself  requires  only  the  simplest  apparatus  and  a few  seconds  time 
in  its  manipulation. 

Uses. 

The  acid  test  is  useful  in  two  ways  : 

1.  It  enables  us  to  select  pure,  sweet  milk  for  pasteurizing, 
for  cheese  making,  for  running  through  the  separator,  and  for 
sending  to  market. 

2.  It  enables  us  to  control  the  ripening  of  cream  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  have  the  cream  exactly  ready  to  churn  when  we  are 
ready  for  it.  Suppose  we  find,  for  instance,  that  in  the  evening 
our  cream  contains  five- tenths  per  cent.  acid.  We  knowT  that  it 
is  ripening  too  fast,  and  we  cool  it  so  that  fermentation  will  pro- 


Bulletin  24 — * The  Acid  Test 


5 


ceed  very  slowly  over  night.  If  we  find  the  cream  very  sweet  at 
evening,  we  warm  it  up  so  as  to  hasten  the  ripening  process,  and 
thus  have  it  ready  for  churning  in  the  morning. 

Amount  of  Acid  at  Different  Stages. 

Fresh  milk  usually  shows  some  acid  present  when  tested.  For 
all  practical  purposes  milk  is  perfectly  sweet  when  the  amount  of 
acid  is  not  above  twelve  to  fifteen-hundreths  of  one  per  cent. 
(.  i2-.i5%).  In  selecting  milk  or  cream  for  pasteurizing,  or  milk 
for  separating,  two-tenths  per  cent,  has  been  taken  as  the  highest 
permissible  acidity. 

As  above  stated,  milk  or  cream  does  not  smell  or  taste  sour 
until  the  acidity  amounts  to  three-tenths  to  four-tenths  per  cent. 

The  acidity  of  cream  when  ready  to  churn  is  usually  between 
five-tenths  and  seven-tenths  per  cent.  If  the  acidity  be  lower 
than  about  five- tenths  per  cent.,  the  butter  will  lack  in  flavor,  and 
there  is  liable  to  be  great  loss  of  fat  in  the  buttermilk.  If  above 
seven-tenths  per  cent,  the  butter  may  have  undesirable  flavors. 

Tike  many  other  bacteria  the  bacteria  of  lactic  acid  cease  to  act 
after  they  have  produced  a given  amount  of  change.  The  pro- 
ducts of  their  own  growth  seem  to  be  injurious  to  them.  When 
the  acidity  reaches  about  one  and  three-tenths  per  cent,  the  milk 
becomes  so  sour  that  the  bacteria  which  caused  the  sourness  cease 
to  grow.  Hence  this  is  about  the  limit  of  acidity  under  normal 
conditions. 

After  the  acidity  of  milk  or  cream  reaches  about  seven-tenths 
to  eight-tenths  per  cent,  the  character  of  the  bacterial  action 
seems  to  change  somewhat.  Other  constituents  than  the  milk 
sugar  are  attacked,  probably  by  bacteria  that  have  remained 
comparatively  dormant  until  this  time,  and  the  result  is  the 
development  of  flavors  and  odors  that  are  often  very  undesirable. 

Directions  for  Making  the  Test. 

Apparatus.  The  acid  test  graduate  shown  in  the  accompany- 
ing figure  is  the  only  special  piece  of  apparatus  necessary  in 
making  the  test.  This  was  devised  by  the  writer,  and  has  been 
in  use  during  the  past  year  in  our  College  creamery.  This 
graduate  is  made  by  the  Creamery  Package  Manufacturing  Co., 


6 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


Chicago.  In  addition  to  this  all  that  is  needed  is  a common 

prescription  bottle  of  six  or  eight  ounce  capacity, 

! and  a package  of  Farrington’s  Alkaline  Tablets, 

i Fill  the  bottle  with  water  and  add  one  tablet  for 

'7-  each  ounce  of  water  in  the  bottle.  Shake  the  bottle 

•6— — frequently  to  aid  in  dissolving  the  tablets.  It  takes 

,5= some  time  for  them  to  dissolve.  Prof.  F.  H.  Far- 

~ rington  of  the  Wisconsin  Dairy  School,  who  devised 

the  tablets,  recommends  that  the  tablets  and  water 
be  placed  in  the  bottle  at  night  ; the  solution  will 
— then  be  ready  for  use  next  morning.  The  tablet 
= — solution  loses  strength  if  allowed  to  stand  more  than 

q — ~ one  day.  Hence  it  should  be  made  fresh  each  day. 

The  tablets  must  be  completely  dissolved  in  the 
solution,  except  a flocculent  residue  that  will  not 
dissolve,  before  any  of  it  is  used. 

Making  the  Test.  In  making  the  test,  the  acid  test  graduate 
is  filled  to  the  zero  mark  with  the  milk  or  cream  to  be  tested. 
The  tablet  solution  is  then  added,  a little  at  a time,  and  the 
graduate  shaken  after  each  addition  to  thoroughly  mix  the  milk 
and  the  tablet  solution.  In  shaking  the  graduate  give  it  a rotary 
motion  to  prevent  spilling  any  of  the  liquid.  Continue  adding 
the  tablet  solution  until  a permanent  pink  color  can  be  detected  in 
the  milk.  The  level  of  the  liquid  in  the  graduate,  measured  by 
the  scale  on  the  graduate,  will  then  be  the  per  cent,  of  acidity  of 
the  milk. 

It  is  best  to  stand  the  graduate  on  a piece  of  white  paper,  so 
that  the  first  pink  coloration  of  the  milk  may  be  easily  detected. 

Principle  Upon  Which  the  Test  is  Based. 

When  an  acid  and  an  alkali  are  mixed  together  they  neutralize 
each  other.  In  fact  they  destroy  each  other,  the  materials  com- 
posing them  reuniting  so  as  to  form  a new  set  of  compounds 
neither  acid  or  alkaline.  There  are  a number  of  substances,  such 
as  litmus,  tumeric  and  phenolthalein,  that  have  one  color  when 
mixed  with  an  acid,  and  another  when  mixed  with  an  alkali. 
The  last  named  is  colorless  when  placed  in  a liquid  containing 
acid,  and  red  when  in  alkali.  If  now  some  phenolthalein  be 
placed  in  the  milk  that  is  to  be  tested,  it  produces  no  color  because 


Bulletin  24  — The  Acid  Test 


7 


the  milk  contains  acid.  But  if  enough  alkali  be  added  to  neu- 
tralize all  the  acid  present  and  render  the  milk  slightly  alkaline 
the  phenolthalein  immediately  turns  red  and  gives  the  milk  a 
pinkish  tinge.  Knowing  the  amount  of  alkali  we  have  added, 
we  have  an  index  of  the  amount  of  acid  in  the  milk. 

Substances  like  phenolthalein,  that  are  used  to  show  when  a 
chemical  action  ceases,  are  called  indicators.  In  the  acid  test  as 
described  in  this  bulletin,  the  alkaline  tablets  contain  both  the 
alkali  and  the  indicator.  They  are  pinkish  in  color,  and  the 
tablet  solution  is  red.  When  a small  quantity  of  it  is  added  to 
milk  the  solution  loses  its  color  entirely.  But  when  enough  has 
been  added  to  neutralize  ail  the  acid  in  the  milk,  the  milk  turns 
slightly  pinkish  in  color.  It  is  one  of  the  nice  points  of  the  test 
to  tell  exactly  when  this  pink  color  begins  to  appear,  for  as  soon 
as  the  slighest  permanent  pink  coloration  shows,  the  acid  is  all 
neutralized,  and  no  more  tablet  solution  should  be  added. 

Prof.  Farrington’s  Test  Outfit. 

The  outfit  for  testing  recommended  by  Prof.  Farrington  in 
Wisconsin  bulletin  52  is  also  a very  simple  and  inexpensive  one. 
Instead  of  the  acid  test  graduate  he  uses  a common  tea  cup,  with 
a No.  10  cartridge  shell  for  a measure.  Put  into  the  tea  cup  one 
shell  full  of  the  milk  to  be  tested.  Then  add  the  tablet  solution 
a shell  full  .at  a time.  The  number  of  measures  of  tablet  solution 
that  must  be  used  to  produce  the  pink  coloration  indicates  the 
amount  of  acid  present  ; each  shell  full  counting  as  one-tenth  of 
one  per  cent. 

The  same  bulletin  (Wis.  52)  describes  another  more  accurate 
test  outfit,  but  requiring  more  apparatus  and  manipulation.  It  is 
believed  that  the  two  outfits  described  above,  however,  are 
sufficient  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  dairymen  of  the  state.  They  are 
both  perfectly  simple  ; the  first  is  more  accurate  than  the  second, 
but  on  the  other  hand  the  graduate  would  probably  cost  a few 
cents  more  than  the  tea  cup  and  cartridge  shell  of  the  second. 
The  shell  should  have  a piece  of  wire  soldered  to  it  for  a handle. 


A List  of  Bulretins  Published  by  thr  Experiment 
Station. 


Nos. 

1.  Announcements. 

2.  Report  of  Farmers’  Institute  held  at  Colton. 

3.  Report  of  Farmers’  Institute  held  at  Garfield. 

4.  Wireworms. 

5.  Report  of  Farmers’  Institute  held  at  Pomeroy. 

6.  Horticultural  Information. 

7.  Two  Injurious  Insects.  (The  Pea  Weevil  and  the  Cottony 

Maple  Scale. 

8.  1. — Common  Fungus  Diseases  and  Methods  of  Preventing. 
2. — Dodder. 

* 9.  Sugar  Beets. 

10.  Wheat,  Barley,  Oats,  Peas  and  Forage  Crops. 

11.  Prelimenary  Report  of  a Feeding  Test  with  Swine. 

*12.  Forest  Tree  Plantation. 

13.  Washington  Soils. 

*14.  Silos  and  Silage. 

15.  Sugar  Beets  in  Washington. 

*16.  Feeding'  Wheat  to  Hogs. 

17.  Insect  Pests  of  the  Farm,  Garden  and  Orchard. 

18.  The  Babcock  Milk  Test. 

19.  Vegetables  ; Notes  on  the  Crop  of  1895. 

20.  Fiber  Flax  in  Washington. 

21.  Susceptibility  of  Spermophiles  to  Pathogenic  Bacteria. 

22.  Influenza. 

23.  Technical  Series  No.  1.  Some  notes  concerning  the  nitro- 

gen content  of  soils  and  humus. 

* Out  of  Print. 


WASHINGTON  STATE  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE 


AND 


PULLMAN,  WASHINGTON 


Bulletin 


DEPARTMENT  OF  HORTICULTURE 

PRUNING  ORCHARD  TREES 
By  J.  A.  Balmer 


DECEMBER,  1S96 


All  bulletins  of  this  station  sent  free  to  citizens  of  the  state 
on  application  to  the  Director. 


THE  CALVERT  CO.,  716  FIRST  AVE.,  SEATTLE 


THE  AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 

BOARD  OF  CONTROL. 


E.  S.  Ingraham,  President , ---------  Seattle 

J.  W.  Arrasmith,  Vice-President , -------  Colfax 

J.  W.  Stearns,  Treasurer , ---------  Tekoa 

H.  S.  Beandford,  ----------  Walla  Walla 

T.  R.  Tannatt,  Farmington 

STATION  STAFF. 


Enoch  A.  Bryan,  ------------  Director 

W.  J.  Spieeman,  - ---------  Agriculturist 

C.  V.  Piper,  - - -----  Botanist  and  Entomologist 

Eeton  Fuemer,  - -----------  Chemist 

John  A.  Baemer,  ----------  Horticulturist 

S.  B.  Neeson,  - --  --  --  --  --  - Veterinarian 

R.  W.  Doane,  - --  --  --  --  - Assistant  Zoologist 

W.  H.  Heieeman,  - - - • Assistant  Chemist 


PRUNING  ORCHARD  TREES 

By  J.  A.  Barmer 

The  numerous  inquiries  by  correspondents  on  the  subject  of 
pruning  orchard  trees,  has  induced  me  to  offer  in  bulletin  form, 
a few  words  of  advice  on  the  subject. 

That  the  subject  is  a live  one,  is  evinced  by  the  keen  interest 
taken  in  its  discussion  at  farmer’s  institutes,  and  that  the  princi- 
ples underlying  the  practice  of  pruning  are  very  imperfectly  under- 
stood, is  clearly  proven  by  the  widely  different  practices  followed 
by  orchardists  of  the  state. 

There  are  those  who  advocate  summer  pruning  and  pinching. 
They  say:  “ All  that  is  necessary  is  your  finger  and  thumb,  to 

correct  the  habit  of  the  young  growth,  take  out  all  superfluous 
shoots,  leaving  only  those  necessary  to  the  proper  formation  of  a 
correct  system  of  limbs.  Let  the  knife  severely  alone/’ 

There  are  others  who  believe  in  severe  pruning,  and  each 
season,  as  the  time  to  prune  comes  around,  we  find  them  butcher- 
ing trees  with  saw  and  ax. 

There  are  others  who  say:  “ I don’t  want  any  pruning  done 

in  my  orchard,  nature  knows  better  than  I how  to  grow  a tree, 
and  I prefer  to  let  nature  have  her  way.” 

It  is  probable  that  there  will  always  be  a diversity  of  opinion 
amongst  orchardists  as  to  the  best  methods  and  proper  time  of 
pruning,  and  this  is  hardly  to  be  wondered  at,  when  we  consider 
the  immense  amount  of  literature  already  published  on  the  sub- 
ject, to  say  nothing  of  the  diversity  of  practice  which  would  fol- 
low diversity  of  climatic  conditions.  One  rarely  looks  at  a horti- 
cultural paper  without  finding  there  the  views  of  some  one  on 
pruning  fruit  trees.  Perhaps  the  writer  lives  in  California,  or 
Canada,  or  on  the  Atlantic  seaboard.  And  yet  he  undertakes  to 
expound  a theory,  or  advocate  a practice,  that,  while  it  may  be 
admirably  adapted  to  his  particular  conditions,  is  totally  unsuit- 


4 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


able  for  sections  of  this  great  country  remote  from  that  of  the 
writer. 

But  what  shall  the  poor  amateur  do,  when  authors  of  unques- 
tioned ability,  who  undertake  to  give  instruction  on  a subject 
which  varies  so  much  with  the  conditions,  present  such  opposite 
views  ? 

The  late  A.  J.  Downing,  who,  over  fifty  years  ago,  wrote  his 
‘ ‘ Fruits  and  Fruit  Trees  of  America,”  in  presenting  a few  remarks 
on  pruning  said:  ‘‘In  this  country  almost  all  fruit  trees  are 

grown  as  standards.  In  this  way  they  develop  their  natural 
forms,  attain  the  largest  size,  and  produce  the  greatest  quantity 
of  fruit  with  the  least  possible  care.  Our  bright  and  powerful 
sun,  reaching  every  part  of  the  tree,  renders  the  minute  systems 
of  pruning  and  training,  which  occupy  so  large  a portion  of  the 
English  works  on  the  subject,  of  little  or  no  moment  to  the  culti- 
vator here.  Pruning  is  therefore  commonly  resorted  to  only  for 
the  purpose  of  increasing  the  vigor  of  feeble  trees,  or  to  regulate 
and  improve  the  form  of  healthy  and  luxuriant  trees.  Every 
fruit  tree,  grown  in  the  open  orchard  or  garden  as  a common 
standard,  should  be  allowed  to  take  its  natural  form,  the  whole 
efforts  of  the  pruner  going  no  further  than  to  take  out  all  weak 
and  crowded  branches.” 

A more  recent  writer,  and  one  no  less  famous,  the  late  Patrick 
Barry,  in  his  ‘‘Barry’s  Fruit  Garden”  says:  ‘‘The  idea  that 

our  bright  American  sun  and  clear  atmosphere  renders  pruning 
an  almost  unnecessary  operation,  has  not  only  been  inculcated  by 
horticultural  writers,  but  has  been  acted  upon  in  practice  to  such 
an  extent,  that  more  than  three-fourths  of  all  bearing  fruit  trees 
in  the  country  are  at  this  moment  either  lean,  misshapen  skel- 
etons, or  the  heads  are  perfect  masses  of  wood,  unable  to  yield 
more  than  one  bushel  in  ten  of  fruit,  well  matured,  colored,  and 
ripened.” 

Here  we  have  two  prominent  writers,  presenting  viewTs  on 
pruning  totally  at  variance, 

There  are  a few  general  principles  underlying  the  practice  of 
pruning  which  I wish  to  present  before  entering  into  a discussion 
of  the  subject  in  hand. 

It  is  well  known  that  severe  pruning  at  a time  of  year  when 
the  tree  is  dormant,  is  conducive  to  a strong  wood  growth  the 


Bulletin  26 — Pruning  Orchard  Trees 


5 


following  season.  This  is  based  on  the  principle  that  if  we 
assume  that  a certain  amount  of  nourishment  is  supplied  by  the 
roots  to  all  of  the  branches  and  buds  of  a tree,  by  cutting  off 
one-half  of  the  branches  at  the  proper  season  we  direct  the  whole 
supply  of  nourishment  to  the  remaining  portion,  which  will  conse- 
quently grow  with  increased  vigor. 

On  the  other  hand,  if  we  prune  a tree  severely  in  summer,  or 
if  by  persistent  pinching  we  reduce  its  foliage  by  one-half,  we  sap 
the  very  life  of  the  tree.  For  it  is  well  known  that  the  office  of 
the  leaves  is  to  manufacture  food  for  the  development  of  tissue, 
which  goes  to  build  up  every  part  of  the  tree,  and  every  time  we 
reduce  the  supply  of  foliage,  we,  to  a certain  extent,  cripple  or 
retard  the  growth  of  the  tree. 

Climatic  conditions  will  largely  determine  what  practice  we 
shall  adopt  in  pruning  our  fruit  trees.  In  a state  like  Washing- 
ton, where  such  dissimilar  climatic  conditions  exist  as  between 
the  regions  west  of  the  Cascades  and  the  regions  east  of  the  Cas- 
cades, no  practice  can  be  laid  down  that  will  be  applicable  to 
both  sides  of  the  range.  What  would  be  a perfectly  proper  prac- 
tice west  of  the  Cascades,  where  the  sun  is  obscured  a large  part 
of  the  year,  and  where  the  moisture  conditions  are  conducive  to  a 
large  wood  growth,  would  be  almost  suicidal  on  the  east  side  of 
the  range,  and  vice  versa.  Therefore  it  will  be  necessary  to 
adopt  a different  practice  for  each  side. 

Let  us  first  observe  the  conditions  prevailing  in  Eastern  Wash- 
ington. Here  we  have  a long  dry  summer,  with  a fierce  scorch- 
ing sun,  and  strong  drying  winds,  with  a maximum  rainfall  of 
probably  less  than  eighteen  inches  per  annum,  followed  by  a 
severe  winter  with  fluctuating  temperature,  and  sudden  changes. 
In  portions  of  the  fruit  belt  there  is  barely  enough  natural 
moisture  in  the  ground  to  sustain  a tree.  Under  these  condi- 
tions who  can  wonder  that  trees  on  the  east  side  come  to 
maturity  at  an  early  age,  and  produce  fruit  at  a time  in  their  lives 
when  they  ought  to  be  making  wood  growth,  and  establishing  a 
strong,  healthy  frame  for  future  usefulness.  And  yet,  conditions 
which  at  first  sight  would  seem  totally  unfitted  for  the  production 
of  healthy  trees  and  fine  fruit,  are,  with  the  aid  of  intelligent 
cultivation,  and  a judicious  use  of  water,  made  to  produce  abun- 
dantly of  the  choicest  fruits  of  the  earth. 


6 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


There  is  no  question  in  my  mind,  as  to  what  is  the  proper 
method  to  adopt  in  pruning  our  fruit  trees  on  the  east  side  of  the 
mountains.  We  must  prune  in  winter  and  prune  hard.  The 
tendency  of  all  our  young  trees  is  to  run  to  premature  fruiting. 
Cherries  carrying  a crop  of  fruit  at  two  years  old,  and  pears  and 
apples  bearing  full  crops  at  five  and  six  years  old.  To  overcome 
this  tendency  in  our  trees  we  must  practice  a system  of  pruning 


Fig.  i 

that  is  conducive  to  wood  and  leaf  growth,  and  to  discourage  all 
forms  of  summer  pruning  and  pinching.  The  practice  of  allowing 
nature  to  have  her  sway  in  our  orchards  has  been  tried  and  found 
wanting.  A tree  left  to  nature’s  way  will  soon  become  a brush- 
pile  in  the  air.  As  an  illustration  of  this,  we  have  had  photo- 
graphed two  trees  at  present  growing  in  a neighboring  orchard. 
The  trees  are  seven  years  old  and  have  never  known  knife  or 
shears  since  they  were  set  out. 

Figure  i,  represents  an  Early  Richmond  cherry.  Figure  2, 


Bulletin  26 — Pruning  Orchard  Trees 


7 


They  are  making  little  or  no  new  wood,  consequently  have  little 
foliage  and  all  the  buds  being  fruit  buds,  the  trees  must  soon  suc- 
cumb. No,  it  won’t  do  to  let  nature  have  her  own  way  entirely 
in  our  orchards.  If  we  would  have  trees  beautiful  in  outline,  with 
stout  short  jointed  frames,  that  will  carry  heavy  crops  of  beauti- 
ful fruit,  and  do  it  without  bending  to  the  ground  or  splitting  the 
trunk,  we  must  lay  the  right  kind  of  a foundation,  and  to  do  this 
we  must  commence  with  a yearling  tree.  I specify  a yearling 


a Green  Gage  plum.  Notice  the  innumerable  branches,  all  emerg- 
ing at  or  near  the  ground  — no  trunk  (and  none  is  needed  in 
this  climate)  the  entire  tree  a mass  of  fruit  buds,  and  woody 
growth  almost  suspended.  Nature’s  only  effort  in  these  trees 
seems  to  be  reproduction.  These  neglected  trees  teach  us  a valu- 
able lesson.  They  say  plainer  than  words,  “ If  you  don’t  culti- 
vate and  prune  me,  I will  soon  be  dead,  for  I cannot  bear  this 
strain,  of  annually  carrying  heavy  loads  of  fruit  much  longer.” 


Fig.  2 


8 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


tree,  for  the  reason  that  if  we  buy  two-year-old  trees  they  have 
usually  been  ruined  by  the  nurseryman’s  knife  in  following  the 
practice  known  as  trimming  up.  We  don’t  want  trees  that  have 
been  trimmed  up,  for  the  limbs  are  already  lopped  off  that  ought 
to’go  to  make  up  the  frame  of  a symmetrical  low-headed  tree. 

I agree  with  the  late  Mr.  Patrick  Barry  ‘ ‘ That  fully  three- 
fourths  of  all  bearing  trees  are  at  this  moment  lean,  misshapen 
skeletons.”  And  probably  the  per  cent,  of  mismanaged,  ungainly 
fruit  trees  in  our  own  state  to-day  is  greater  than  this.  The  great- 
est mistake  has  been  made  in  allowing  too  much  bowl  or  trunk  to 
our  trees  at  the  outset,  and  in  neglect  of  intelligent  use  of  the 
knife  in  the  early  years  of  the  tree.  A young  tree  with  a trunk 
four  or  five  feet  long  is  in  a sad  predicament  in  this  part  of  the 
state.  It  is  soon  in  the  condition  described  as  hide-bound,  sun- 
burned, and  becomes  a prey  to  borers.  I take  it,  there  is  no  one 
thing  that  will  conduce  to  success  in  fruit  growing  more  than  will 
low  heading  of  trees. 

On  page  154,  of  his  “ Fruits  of  California”  Prof.  Edward  J. 
Wickson,  of  Berkeley,  California,  has  this  to  say  of  low  heading: 
“The  mainspring  of  success  in  California  is  to  grow  low  trees. 
Low  is  a term  admitting  of  degrees,  it  is  true,  and  ma}r  imply  a 
trunk  of  six  inches  up  to  one  or  two  feet  in  the  clear.  There  are 
old  trees  with  much  higher  stems,  and  in  some  parts  of  the  state 
they  are  safe,  but  few  experienced  fruit  planters  now  head  their 
trees  high. 

Eow  heading  has  for  us  all  the  advantages  for  which  this  prac- 
tice is  approved  in  other  parts  of  the  world,  viz.,  accessibility  of 
fruit  and  ease  of  pruning,  symmetry  and  solidity,  and  consequent 
decrease  of  danger  from  high  winds,  greater  facility  of  approach 
to  the  trunk  with  the  horse  in  cultivation.  This  last  point  has 
been  contested  on  our  own  soil,  for  experience  has  demonstrated 
that  properly  trained  trees  with  low  heads  and  obliquelv-rising 
branches  are  handier  for  the  cultivator  than  high-headed  trees 
with  drooping  horizontal  branches.  But  these  general  advantages 
of  low-trained  trees  are  not  the  chief  ones  secured  in  California  in 
low  heading.  Hundreds  of  thousands  of  trees  have  been  de- 
stroyed by  the  exposure  of  a long,  bare  trunk  to  the  rays  of  the 
afternoon  sun.  The  sun-burned  sides  have  given  the  conditions 
desired  by  borers,  and  destruction  has  quickly  followed.  Some- 


Bulletin  26 — Pruning  Orchard  Trees 


9 


times  young  trees  have  not  survived  their  first  season  in  the 
orchard,  because  of  burned  bark;  or  this,  with  the  added  injury 
by  the  borers.  It  is  found  by  California  experience  that  the 
growth  is  more  vigorous  in  the  branches  when  they  emerge  near 
the  ground.  Even  where  actual  burning  may  not  occur,  the 
travel  of  sap  through  the  longer  distance  of  trunk  is  undesirable. 
It  is  believed,  also,  that  benefit  results  from  shading  of  the  ground 
at  the  base  of  the  trees,  by  reducing  evaporation,  and  by  main- 
taining a temperature  of  soil  better  suited  to  vigorous  root  growth. 
But  whatever  may  be  the  reasons,  the  fact  is  indisputable,  the 
higher  the  prevaling  summer  temperature,  and  the  greater  the 
aridity,  the  lower  should  the  tree  be  headed.” 

In  the  same  work  is  given  the  practice  and  experience  of  many 
of  the  prominent  fruit  growers  of  California.  And  they  without 
exception,  all  advocate  low  heading.  One  of  these  correspondents, 
General  H.  P.  Chepman,  of  Tehema  county,  says:  ‘‘I  would 

prefer  a head  within  six  inches  of  the  ground.  Among  my  early 
plantings  I can  show  trees  with  a clean  trunk  of  four  or  five  feet, 
and  I shall  keep  a few  as  monuments  of  my  ignorance;  the  bal- 
ance I shall  cut  down  and  grub  out.” 

The  climatic  conditions  prevailing  in  Eastern  Washington  are 
similar  to  those  found  in  many  parts  of  California,  except  that  the 
California  summers  are  longer  and  hotter,  and  of  course  our  win- 
ters are  more  severe.  But  this  does  not  alter  the  fact  that  what 
has  been  found  a good  practice  in  California  will  certainly  be  a 
wise  one  to  follow  here. 

The  experimental  orchard  on  the  station  at  Pullman,  clearly 
illustrates  the  advantages  of  low-heading  over  high-heading. 
Amongst  the  earlier  plantings  were  trees  with  stems  varying  from 
three  to  five  feet  in  length.  The  bark  on  the  trunks  of  these  trees 
looks  glazed  and  burned,  the  trunk  is  not  developing  in  proportion 
to  the  top,  and  most  of  them  are  bent  by  the  force  of  the  wind, 
making  their  condition  a more  exposed  one.  Contrasted  with 
these,  are  trees  with  their  branch  system  emerging  within  a foot 
or  eighteen  inches  of  the  ground,  and  whose  bark  is  healthy  and 
natural  looking  accompanied  with  a full  and  perfect  development 
in  all  parts  of  the  tree.  The  tall  trees  are  rapidly  running  to  fruit 
buds,  whilst  those  that  have  been  kept  dwarf  by  the  use  of  the 


IO 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


knife  in  winter,  show  a vigor  much  in  advance  of  their  long- 
legged  neighbors . 

Low  heading  then,  is  the  watchword  for  planters  in  Eastern 
Washington.  Commence  with  a yearling  tree,  switches  preferred, 
for  example,  fig.  3,  for  in  these  we  find  the  entire  bud  system  in- 
tact, and  we  can  head  our  trees  ^t  any  desired  height.  All  trees 
that  naturally  have  a tall  upright  habit  of  growth,  such  as  apple, 
pear  and  sweet  cherry,  ought  to  be  headed  not  higher  than  twenty 
to  twenty-four  inches  from  the  ground.  And  all  stone  fruits  such 
as  peaches,  plums,  prunes,  apricots,  etc.,  ought  to  be  headed  a little 
lower,  say  twelve  to  eighteen  inches  from  the  ground.  Yearling 
trees  as  usually  found  in  the  nurseries  of  the  state,  will  range  from 

two  to  four — or  even 
seven  or  eight  feet 
high.  At  planting 
time,  whether  it  be 
spring  or  fall,  these 
ought  to  be  headed 
down  to  the  proper 
height. 

I am  aware  that  it 
seems  like  a great  sac- 
rifice to  take  a strong 
young  tree  and  cut 
awa}r  three-fourths  of 
its  top,  but  it  must  be 
done,  and  done  at 
once;  for  if  you  allow 
one  year  to  pass  with- 
out attention  to  this 
topping,  your  chances 
to  secure  a well-formed 
Fig,  3 low-headed  tree  are 

lost.  For  while  you  may  at  any  time  cut  a tree  back  to  the  de- 
sired height,  yet,  to  cut  back,  into  wood  that  is  two  or  three  years 
old,  never  gives  the  same  results  as  does  attention  to  this  matter 
at  the  proper  time. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  treatment  of  the  tree  the  first  season  is 
of  a very  simple  nature.  Your  young  orchard  contains  a lot  of 


Bulletin  26 — Pruning  Orchard  Trees 


11 


stubs  sticking  out  of  the  ground,  to  a height  not  exceeding  two 
feet.  During  the  first  season’s  growth  these  stubs  will  develop 
numerous  branches,  almost  every  bud  will  start,  and  what  was 
lately  a stub  will  become  a little  forest  of  shoots.  Now,  if  you 
follow  some  of  the  authorities  you  will,  as  soon  as  the  young 
shoots  commence  to  develop,  proceed  to  pinch  or  rub  off  all  the 
limbs  you  don’t  need  to  form  the  frame  of  the  tree.  I say,  don’t 
pinch  or  rub  olf  anything.  Allow  every  limb  and  every  leaf  to 
develop  to  its  fullest  extent.  Remember  that  the  leaves  are  to  a 
tree  what  our  lungs  and  blood  are  to  us;  its  very  life.  And  every 
leaf  you  deprive  the  tree  of  in  summer  is  robbing  it  of  its  tissue- 
forming organs.  Without  leaf  action  there  can  be  no  root  action. 
And  the  fullest  development  in  root  and  branch  can  only  be 
secured  by  religiously  preserving  the  foliage. 

The  question  is  often  asked 
when  is  the  proper  time  to 
prune?  This  can  only  be  an- 
swered by  asking  another  ques- 
tion, what  end  are  you  aiming 
at?  Do  you  want  your  trees 
to  bear  prematurely,  or  do  you 
desire  the  fullest  development 
of  tree  growth  before  allowing 
them  to  carry  heavy  loads  of 
fruit?  If  the  former,  then 
pinch  and  prune  in  summer; 
if  the  latter  (and  this  is  cer- 
' tainly  the  more  desirable), 
prune  ; in  winter.  The  best 
time  to  prune  is  any  time  after 
the  leaves  have  fallen  in  au- 
tumn, and  before  the  buds 
commence  to  develop  in  spring 
Care  must  be  exercised,  however,  not  to  prune  at  a time  when 
there  is  frost  in  the  ground  or  in  the  air.  If  the  system  of  the 
tree  be  frozen,  all  organizable  matter  is  at  a standstill,  and  the 
wound  you  make  will  not  readily  heal  up,  and  the  result  may  be 
dead  stubs: 

We  will  proceed  to  prune  our  tree  for  the  second  time.  The 


Fig.  4 


12 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


switch  that  you  planted  and  headed  back  last  year,  has  developed 
a number  of  shoots,  maybe  five  or  six,  but  more  often  fifteen  or 
twenty.  From  these  select  from  three  to  five  of  the  strongest, 
best  ripened  limbs  (cutting  out  all  the  rest)  at  the  same  time 
exercising  care  to  have  them  evenly  fill  the  space  around  and 
above  the  tree.  Observe  carefully  that  no  two  limbs  emerge  from 
the  trunk  opposite  each  other , forming  what  is  known  as  a crotch.  A 
crotch  in  an  old  tree  is  always  an  evil,  causing  a weak  spot  where 
the  tree  will  be  likely  to  break  down  or  split  during  a heavy  fruit 
crop.  The  remedy  is  in  your  own  hands  when  you  go  to  prune 
your  two-year-old  tree,  cut  out  every  limb  that  forms  a crotch 
with  its  neighbor. 

Figure  4 will  convey  to  some  the  idea  of  what  a two-year-old 
tree  ought  to  be  like  after  having  received  its  second  pruning.  No- 
tice the  arrangement  of  the  limbs.  All  crotches  have  been 
avoided;  from  the  ground  to  the  lowest  branches  is  twelve  inches, 
the  entire  height  of  the  tree  thirty  inches.  Contrast  this  little 
stocky  tree,  with  the  weaklings  of  the  same  age  one  commonly 
meets  in  orchards  to-day,  with  thin,  misshapen  trunk  three  or 
four  feet  high,  surmounted  by  two  or  three  long  spindling 
branches,  the  whole  innocent  of  knife  or  shears.  No  wonder  our 
trees  break  down,  they  have  not  strength  to  carry  a heavy  crop  of 
fruit. 

After  having  selected  the  desired  number  of  limbs  intended  to 
form  the  frame  of  the  tree,  shorten  these  back  to  within  a foot  of 
the  trunk,  always  cutting  to  a plump  prominent  bud.  The  tree 
may  be  spread,  or  it  may  be  contracted,  by  cutting  to  a bud  which 
points  outward,  for  the  former,  and  to  a bud  that  inclines  inward 
for  the  latter.  You  need  not  hope  to  alter  the  character  of  the 
tree  by  this  cutting  to  a bud,  yet  a little  may  be  done  to  improve 
its  shape.  As  a rule  the  weaker  the  growth  the  harder  it  ought 
to  be  cut  back,  this  will  encourage  an  increased  wood  growth  the 
following  summer.  Trees  treated  in  this  way  make  a growth 
that  is  often  very  perplexing  to  the  amateur;  the  result  of  this 
shortening  in  of  all  the  limbs  will  be  an  increased  number  of 
shoots  to  treat  the  following  season. 

Figure  5 is  inserted  to  show  a tree  of  the  worst  form.  It  is  a 
plum,  two  years  old  from  the  nursery,  and  has  been  trimmed  up; 
the  trunk  is  about  four  feet  long,  and  all  the  limbs  emerge  in  a 


Bulletin  2 6 — Pruning  Orchard  Trees 


13 


cluster,  forming  a very  weak  tree.  Notice  that  the  tree  is 
planted  inclined  several  points  to  the  wind,  and  that  the  limbs 
have  been  cut  severely  back  with  a view  of  stocking  up  the  frame. 
Unless  they  are  valuable  varieties  such  trees  would  better  be  con- 
signed to  the  rubbish  pile. 


fi 


Fig.  5 

Figure  6 shows  a cherry  tree  with  a trunk  too  long.  It  is  in- 
serted mainly  to  show  at  what  an  early  age  fruit  buds  are  formed. 

Figure  7 shows  a sweet  cherry  tree  of  good  form,  branched  low 
down.  It  shows  very  plainly  the  tendency  to  early  fruiting  in 


Washington  Agi'icultural  Experiment  Station 


our  trees.  The  extreme  height  of  this  tree  is  six  feet.  It  has 
been  planted  four  years,  and  has  been  four  times  pruned. 

The  third  pruning  is  conducted  on  the  same  lines  as  the  second 
with  this  difference:  Select  the  limbs  you  wish  to  continue  the 

upward  growth  of  the  tree;  these  will  usually  be  not  more  than 
two  on  each  of  those  left  last  year,  observing  the  same  care  not  to 
leave  crotches,  and  shortening  in  the  growth  made  in  that  season; 

but  instead  of  tak- 
ing off  all  of  the 
inside  shoots  clean 
to  the  branch, 
they  are  left  an 
inch  or  two  long, 
and  in  the  course 
of  a season  or  two 
all  these  stubs 
that  you  leave  will 
be  converted  into 
fruit  spurs.  I 
would  practice 
pruning  if  for  no 
other  reason  than 
to  develop  every 
bud  on  all  the 
limbs,  and  would 
treat  these  buds  in 
such  a manner 
that  all  would 
eventually  become 
Fig.  6.  ' fruit  spurs. 

How  often  do  we  see  trees  with  great  quantities  of  wood  en- 
tirely devoid  of  fruit  spurs  caused  by  leaving  the  entire. summer’s 
growth  and  not  shortening  in  the  shoots.  A tree*  in  this  condi- 
tion is  exposed  to  the  same  evil  influences  that  affect  trees  with 
tall  trunks,  and  the  greatest  care  ought  to  be  exercised  to  encour- 
age all  weak  growth  and  dormant  buds  to  develop  a fruiting  con- 
dition. The  third  season’s  pruning,  then,  differs  from  the  first 
and  second  in  leaving  a part  of  all  the  growth  instead  of  taking  it 
clean  off  as  in  the  case  of  very  young  trees.  I object  to  leaving 


Bulletin  26 — Pruning  Orchard  Trees 


i5 


spurs  before  the  third  season  for  the  reason  that  by  so  doing  we 
encourage  a fruiting  condition  in  our  trees  at  too  early  an  age, 
and  this  is  the  very  end  we  are  trying  to  defeat. 

The  necessary  pruning  during  the  following  two  or  three  years 
does  not  materially  differ  from  that  described  for  the  third  year. 
Let  the  aim  be  a symmetrical  low,  somewhat  round-headed  tree — 
the  top  ought  not  to  be  too  full  of  wood — and  not  too  thin!  Do 
not  expect  that  every  tree  can  be  pruned  so  as  to  assume  an  ideal 
form,  for  in  this 
you  will  be  dis- 
appointed. No 
two  trees  have 
exactly  the  same 
habit  of  growth. 

Some  are  tall 
and  close,  others 
spreading  and 
willowy.  A 1 1 
may  be  vastly 
improved  by  an 
intelligent  use 
of  the  knife  dur- 
ing the  early 
years  of  the 
tree’s  growth. 

At  the  age  of 
four  or  five  years 
we  find  cherry, 
plum,  and  even 
apple  and  pear, 

rapidly  develop-  Fig.  7 

ing  fruit  buds.  And  as  this  condition  becomes  evident  the  use  of 
the  knife  had  better  be  gradually  discontinued.  All  the  pruning 
necessary  on  bearing  trees  is  to  encourage  a proper  development 
of  the  leading  shoots  and  if  these  are  making  a growth  of  over* 
twenty-four  inches  annually,  they  ought  to  be  shortened  in  to  en- 
courage a stocky  habit  of  tree.  All  weak  shoots  appearing  lower 
down  on  the  tree  should  be  cut  back  to  within  an  inch  or  two  of 


i6 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


the  limbs,  thereby  forming  a full  and  correct  system  of  fruit  spurs 
on  every  part  of  the  tree. 

Water  sprouts,  as  they  are  usually  termed,  are  simply  evidence 
of  excessive  vigor  in  a tree  and,  in  many  cases,  ought  to  be  en- 
couraged instead  of  being  pulled  off,  as  is  the  general  practice. 
We  have  been  able  to  protect  the  trunks  of  many  trees  in  the  col- 
lege orchard  by  leaving  one  or  two  of  these  sprouts  that  happened 


Fig.  8. 

to  develop  low  down  on  the  sunny  side  of  the  trunk. 

Figure  8 illustrates  this  practice.  An  apple  that  has  received 
its  third  pruning,  and  where  a sprout  has  been  left  to  develop 
leaves  with  the  object  of  shading  and  protecting  the  trunk.  And 
so  effectually  have  these  sprouts  done  their  work,  that  in  trees 
thus  treated  the  bark  on  the  trunk  has  assumed  its  proper  color 
and  a fuller,  more  perfect  development  of  the  tree  has  been  the 
result.  A shoot  left  for  this  purpose  ought  to  be  kept  within 


Bulletin  26 — Pruning  Orchard  Trees 


*7 


bounds  by  pinching  and  close  pruning.  After  the  tree  has  suffi- 
cient spread  of  top  to  effectually  shade  the  trunk  these  side 
sprouts  may  be  dispensed  with. 

A tree  bent  out  of  shape  by  carrying  large  quantities  of  fruit 
may,  many  a time,  have  its  top  renewed  and  the  open  spaces 
filled  in  by  using  one  of  the.se  sprouts,  and  treating  it  exactly  as 
described  for  a one  and  two  year  old  tree.  Grow  a young  tree 
top  of  an  old  one  as  it  were. 

Figure  9 will  il- 
lustrate a tree  after 
having  received  its 
second  pruning,  by 
a timid  pruner,  and 
where  the  growth 
has  been  left  too 
tong.  Of  course  the 
reader  will  under- 
stand that  it  is  im- 
possible to  lay  down 
a rule  that  will  be 
applicable  in  all 
cases,  trees  vary  so 
in  their  habit  of 
growth,  and  in  time 
of  maturing.  A 
system  of  pruning 
that  might  be  fol- 
lowed in  the  case 
of  a Northern  Spy 
apple  would  not  an- 
Fig.  9.  swer  in  the  case  of 

a Wagener,  a Wealthy  or  a Ben  Davis,  the  former  requiring 
eight  or  ten  years  before  arriving  at  maturity,  while  the  latter 
trees  fruit  freely  at  three  and  four  years  old.  Discontinue  the 
knife  as  the  tree  decreases  in  wood  development,  until  at  four  or 
five  years,  as  in  the  case  of  early  maturing  trees,  or  at  seven  or 
eight  years  as  in  the  case  of  late  maturing  trees,  you  finally 
drop  pruning  altogether. 


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Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


IN  WESTERN  WASHINGTON 

The  above  practice  is  recommended  for  all  regions  east  of  the 
Cascades.  Trees  on  the  west  of  the  mountains  should  be  treated 
a little  differently.  In  most  sections  on  the  west  side,  and  espe- 
cially in  the  warmer  valleys,  trees  make  an  extraordinary  wood 
growth.  It  is  no  uncommon  thing  to  find  young  prunes  and 
cherries  making  a growth  of  six  to  ten  feet  in  a single  season. 
The  excessive  moisture  in  soil  and  atmosphere,  and  the  mild 
climate,  is  conducive  of  this  rapid  growth.  Trees  grow  late  in 
the  season,  and  there  is  some  difficulty  in  securing  thoroughly 
ripened  wood.  To  cut  back  severely  in  winter  aggravates  the 
evil,  more  and  longer  wood  is  the  result.  The  way  to  check  this 
excessive  growth  is  to  resort  to  summer  pruning  and  pinching  and 
even  to  root  pruning. 

As  it  was  said  at  the  beginning  of  this  paper,  to  deprive  a tree 
of  a large  part  of  its  foliage  in  summer  is  to  check  its  exuberance, 
and  encourage  a habit  of  fruitfulness,  and  here,  where  vegetation 
runs  riot  in  the  orchard,  it  might  be  perfectly  proper  to  resort  to 
a system  of  summer  pruning.  For  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  we 
are  not  growing  orchards  for  timber  purposes,  but  for  the  fruit  they 
will  produce, 

To  properly  carry  out  the  practice  of  summer  pruning,  one 
would  better  commence  with  a yearling  tree,  and  head  it  low. 
Low  heading  has  all  the  advantages  on  the  west  side  that  it  has 
on  the  east  side  of  the  mountains,  and  enough  has  already  been 
said  on  this  subject  to  convince  the  most  skeptical.  We  find  no- 
where in  nature  such  unseemly  conditions  as  are  found  in 
“ trimmed  up  ” orchards.  A seedling  tree  in  an  isolated  position 
is  always  branched  low;  only  in  forests  of  some  age,  do  we  find 
bare  trunks,  and  these  are  protected  from  the  fierce  sun-rays  by 
the  canopy  of  leaves  overhead.  The  young  growth  that  appears 
in  a clearing  is  always  a thicket,  fully  branched  and  protected  to 
the  ground.  Then  why  should  we  do  anything  so  unnatural  as 
go  into  an  orchard  and  trim  off  all  the  lower  branches  ? 

Head  your  young  trees  back  to  the  desired  height,  and  as 
growth  advances  in  summer,  constantly  regulate  the  same  by 
pinching  or  cutting  off  all  limbs  not  required  to  form  the  frame  of 
the  tree.  By  allowing  the  growth  to  develope  three  or  four  inches 
then  pinch  back  to  two  inches;  the  result  will  be  fruit  spurs.  Of 


Bulletin  26 — Pruning  Orchard  Trees 


19 


course  it  will  not  do  to  pinch  too  much,  a certain  amount  of  leaf- 
growth  must  be  encouraged,  only  leaders,  i.  e.  limbs  intended  to 
form  the  frame,  should  be  left  unpinched,  but  all  laterals  ought  to 
be  pinched  until  they  have  developed  a habit  of  forming  fruit 
buds. 

The  winter  treatment  of  such  a tree  would  be  to  shorten  back 
the  leaders  to  within  a foot  or  eighteen  inches  of  last  year’s  growth. 
By  so  doing  you  get  rid  of  all  immature  growth,  and  force  the  re- 
maining buds  to  develop  limbs  which  (except  the  leaders)  are 
treated  exactly  as  recommended  for  laterals.  By  closely  following 
out  this  practice  you  develop  a tree  fruitful  in  every  limb,  feathered 
to  the  ground,  with  no  superfluous  wood,  and  no  exposed  trunk 
or  limbs. 

ROOT  PRUNING. 

Root  pruning  has  the  same  effect  as  summer  pruning.  Where 
trees  have  been  neglected  and  are  now  several  years  old,  yet  show- 
ing no  tendency  to  fruit,  they  may  be  root  pruned.  This  is  ac- 
complished by  digging  a trench,  a spade  wide,  all  around  the  tree 
at  a radius  of  six  or  seven  feet  from  the  trunk.  If  the  trench  be 
two  or  three  feet  deep,  most  of  the  horizontal  roots  will  be  cut 
through.  Fill  in  the  trench  with  well  pulverizied  soil,  and  the 
result  will  be  a check  to  the  woody  growth,  the  tree  having  been 
deprived  of  a large  quantity  of  its  feeding  roots,  will  make  less 
wood  and  more  fruit  buds.  Root  pruning  ought  to  be  performed 
in  winter  only,  and  that  during  mild  weather.  It  is  a practice  that 
I cannot  generally  recommend,  for  it  is  rarely  ever  well  done,  and 
moreover  it  is  laborious  work  and  as  the  same  ends  may  be  attained 
by  summer  pruning  and  pinching,  it  will  not  generally  be  prac- 
ticed. 

Planters  on  the  west  side  of  Washington  can  do  much  to  pro- 
mote fruitfulness  in  their  trees  by  a proper  selection  of  soil  and 
location,  always  remembering  that  a dry  porous  soil  is  conducive 
to  fruitfulness,  and  mature  wood. 

REMOVING  TARGE  EIMBS. 

Where  large  limbs  are  to  be  removed  from  a tree,  the  work 
would  be  better  performed  at  a time  of  year  when  there  is  no  foli- 
age in  the  way.  Commence  by  sawing  an  inch  or  so  upward  from 
the  underside  of  the  branch,  then  saw  from  above  down;  by  adopt- 


20 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


ing  this  method  you  will  avoid  splitting  or  slivering  the  bark. 
All  limbs  of  a larger  diameter  than  an  inch,  ought  to  have  the 
wounds  dressed  with  some  material  to  protect  the  trunk  while  the 
wound  is  healing  over.  Common  paint  will  answer  the  purpose. 
Axle  grease  is  sometimes  employed;  but  gum  shellac  dissolved  in 
alcohol  is  probably  the  best  dressing  to  employ.  The  material 
ought  to  be  of  the  consistency  of  thin  mucilage  and  when  not  in 
use,  kept  tightly  corked  to  prevent  evaporation. 

RENEWING  OLD  TREES. 

There  are  few  orchards  in  the  state  where  the  trees  are  so  old 
that  they  require  cutting  over  to  renew  the  heads.  Yet  there  are 
many  trees  that  at  present  are  mere  skeletons,  which  might  be 
benefited  by  cutting  back  to  encourage  a new  top.  This  is  done 
in  winter,  and  consists  in  sawing  off  all  the  tall  straggling  top.  If 
the  tree  be  still  vigorous,  it  will  develop  strong  young  shoots  the 
first  year,  which  should  be  treated  in  all  respects  as  if  they  were 
young  trees.  By  this  method  one  may  convert  an  otherwise 
worthless  tree  into  one  of  usefulness.  The  better  plan,  however, 
would  be  to  grub  out  all  worthless  trees,  and  commence  anew 
with  young  thrifty  stock. 

GATHERING  UP  PRUNINGS. 

A matter  in  connection  with  pruning,  and  one  which  should 
always  have  the  closest  attention  is  that  of  gathering  up  the 
prunings.  These  are  oftentimes  the  harbor  of  aphis  eggs,  and  the 
eggs  of  other  injurious  insects,  and  if  left  lying  on  the  ground  too 
long  these  eggs  may  hatch  and  do  a great  amount  of  damage. 
Our  practice  is  to  rake  up  the  prunings  into  bunches  and  load 
them  into  a wagon  to  be  hauled  away  and  burned. 

In  parts  of  California  where  they  have  very  large  orchards,  a 
kind  of  portable  furnace  is  used;  this  is  a large  sheet-iron  recep- 
tacle mounted  on  four  wheels,  with  an  iron  frame.  In  the  center 
of  the  iron  trough  is  a grate.  On  this  a fire  is  lit,  and  the  prun- 
ings having  been  previously  raked,  with  a horse  rake,  into  rows, 
are  loaded  on  to  this  fire.  A horse  is  hitched  to  this  portable 
furnace,  and  the  whole  orchard  gone  over,  the  fire  being  kept  up 
all  the  while.  This  is  said  to  work  well  in  vineyards,  but  may 
be  too  cumbersome  for  our  Washington  orchards.  At  all  events, 
see  to  it  that  the  prunings  are  burned  and  the  ashes  returned  to 
the  orchard. 


Bulletin  26 — Pruning  Orchard  Trees 


21 


BEST  FORM  OF  TREE. 

A Correspondent  recently  wrote  inquiring  if  it  would  not  be 
practicable  and  profitable  to  train  our  trees  as  Espaliers  and  Cor- 
dons, as  is  practiced  in  England  and  on  the  continent  of  Europe. 

These  practices  are  resorted  to  in  the  above  mentioned  coun- 
tries only  where  labor  is  plentiful,  and  where  the  planter  or  pro- 
prietor has  a good  long  purse,  and  is  able  to  employ  the  necessary 
help.  Espalier,  Cordon,  Fan,  or  any  of  these  fancy,  and  some- 
times beautiful  forms  of  tree  training,  can  only  be  carried  on 
where  there  are  fences,  walls  or,  buildings  on  which  to  grow  the 
trees.  The  extra  labor  of  tying,  nailing,  and  the  removal  of 
breast-wood  in  summer,  precludes  our  adopting  the  practice  here 
where  we  have  no  cheap  labor,  nor  the  skilled  help  necessary  to 
carry  out  the  practice  in  its  fullest  detail.  Besides  in  a country 
like  this,  where  trees  grown  as  low  standards,  develop  so  grandly, 
and  fulfiling  all  the  purposes  of  a fruit  tree,  we  have  no  need  of  any 
other  method  than  the  one  at  present  followed.  As  at  present 
practiced,  fruit-growing  is  none  too  profitable,  and  if  we  were  to 
add  to  this  the  extra  cost  of  tree  training  not  to  mention  the  con- 
sequent reduced  fruiting  surface,  we  would  soon  find  ourselves  in 
the  small  end  of  the  financial  horn. 

A CHAPTER  ON  TRANSPLANTING  AND  PRUNING  ORNAMENTAL 

TREES. 

In  a new  state  like  Washington  where  so  many  people  are 
establishing  homes,  many  of  them  on  the  treeless  prairies,  there  is 
considerable  activity  in  the  line  of  tree  planting,  and  in  beautifying 
the  home  surroundings.  This  is  as  it  should  be,  and  to  the  end 
that  their  efforts  may  be  crowned  with  greater  success  are  these 
few  words  of  advice  offered. 

Transplanting  may  be  done  in  either  Autumn  or  Spring, 
Autumn  preferred.  Trees  planted  in  the  fall  have  time  to  become 
well  settled  in  the  ground,  and  the  wounded  roots  have  ample 
time  to  callous  over  and  throw  out  new  rootlets  by  the  time  spring 
opens.  We  make  an  exception  in  the  case  of  evergreens.  These 
are  better  transplanted  just  as  spring  is  fairly  opening.  When 
the  leaves  of  the  maple  are  beginning  to  unfold,  is  a good  time  to 
transplant  evergreens.  See  to  it  that  their  roots  never  become 
real  dry  or  their  chances  to  live  will  be  much  reduced.  In  all 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


22 


events  the  wood  of  deciduous  trees  ought  to  be  fully  matured  and 
the  leaves  off.  If  the  tree  to  be  moved  is  of  considerable  age,  it 
will  be  necessary  to  dig  quite  a large  hole  around  it,  with  a view 
of  preserving  the  greatest  amount  of  roots,  yet  no  matter  how  well 
the  digging  is  done,  a large  quantity  of  the  most  valuable  feeding 
roots  will  always  remain  in  the  ground.  To  compensate  for  this 
great  loss  of  root,  the  top  must  also  be  cut  away  in  as  great  or 
greater  proportion. 


Fig.  10. 

Figure  io.  An  English  or  Cork-barked  Maple  ( Acer  Cam- 
pestre') , and  Figure  n,  a Flowering  Ash  ( Fraxinus  Ornus ),  are  in- 
troduced to  show  the  method  of  heading-in  at  transplanting  time. 
The  newly  transplanted  tree  having  no  working  roots  cannot  sup- 
port a large  amount  of  top,  consequently  all  the  wood  that  can 
well  be  spared  had  better  be  cut  away. 


Bulletin  26 — Pruning  Orchard  Trees 


23 


m 


w 


Where  it  is  possible,  trees  are  better  if  procured  at  a nursery 
where  they  have  had  cultivation,  and  attention  has  been  paid  to 
transplanting  them.  Such  trees  will  have  a mass  of  fibrous  roots, 
and  will  be  in  better  shape  to  stand  transportation  and  transplant- 
ing than  will  trees  that  are  dug  in  timber  cultures,  or  taken  from 
the  wilds. 

Trees  intended  for  shade  and  orna- 
ment, should  not  be  hacked  and  cut  out 
of  all  natural  semblance  to  their  true 
forms.  It  is  rarely  ever  necessary  to 
again  resort  to  pruning  most  of  our 
shade  trese  after  they  are  once  firmly 
established  in  their  permanent  posi- 
tions. It  is  quite  proper  to  trim  hedges, 
and  some  forms  of  shrubbery  into  shape, 
but  trees  ought  to  be  allowed  to  take 
their  natural  form  and  habit.  The 
practice  of  pollarding,  i.  e.  trimming 
of  the  entire  top  of  shade  trees  in 
summer  is  particularly  to  be  con- 
demned as  this  cripples  and  retards 
their  progress.  There  are  cases  where 
the  saw  could  be  used  to  remove  an 
unsightly  limb,  or  correct  some  un- 
even growth,  but  for  the  most  part, 
nature  ought  to  be  allowed  to  follow 
her  bent  in  our  shade  trees. 

Where  it  is  possible,  it  will  be 
found  to  be  a great  protection  to  the 
tree  if  the  branches  can  be  left  as  low 
down  on  the  trunk  as  possible  only 
taking  off  the  lower  limbs,  (if  this  is  necessary)  when  the  top  is 
large  and  spreading  enough  to  shade  and  protect  the  trunk.  In 
our  dry  climate  too  much  importance  cannot  be  attached  to  this 
point. 

Evaporation  is  exceedingly  rapid  and  many  hundreds  of  other- 
wise healthy  shade  trees,  have  died  from  exposure  of  their  trunks 
to  the  scorching  sun  rays. 


' w 1 -f 


Fig. 


* [ 
n. 


24- 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


FRUIT  TREE  CATALOGUE. 

List  of  varieties  at  present  (November,  1896)  represented  in 
the  Experiment  Station  orchard. 

The  following  list  of  varieties  of  fruit  are  at  present  growing 
on  the  station.  It  is  the  desire  of  the  management  to  add  to  this 
list  as  fast  as  opportunities  occur.  It  is  particularly  requested 
that  those  interested  in  fruit  growing  will  look  carefully  over  the 
list,  and  if  they  are  in  possession  of  any  varieties  of  merit,  not 
here  listed,  I will  be  glad  to  open  up  a correspondence  with  a view 
of  exchanging. 

The  orchard  is  young,  and  some  of  the  varieties  are  hardly 
established  yet,  most  of  the  trees  however  are  in  good  vigor  and 
I will  take  pleasure  in  sending  scions  to  people  that  are  interested. 


APPLES. 


Alexander 

Colfax 

Huntsman’s  Favorite 

Amassia 

Canada  Reinette 

Hoover 

Am.  Summer  Pearmain 

Duchess  of  Oldenberg 

Hibernal 

Anisette 

Duke  of  Devonshire 

Hubbardston’s  Nonesuch 

Aport 

Dutch  Mignonne 

Holland  Pippin 

Arabskoe 

Denvers  Sweet 

Jersey  Sweeting 

Arkansas  Beauty 

Delaware  Red 

Jefferies 

Arkansas  Black 

Dominie 

Jonathan 

Autumn  Strawberry 

Early  Strawberry 

Keiv  Reinette 

Baldwin 

Early  Harvest 

Kenozi 

Bailey’s  Sweeting 

Early  Ripe 

Kronish  Rosy 

Beauty  of  Kent 

English  Golden  Russet 

King 

Belle  de  Booskoop 

Fink 

Keswick  Codlin 

Benton 

Fameuse 

Kay 

Benoni 

Falla  water 

Lead 

Ben  Davis 

Gypsy  Girl 

Lankford 

Blue  Pearmain 

Gideon 

Lady 

Borovinka 

Golden  Sweet 

Lowell 

Bogdanoff 

Golden  Russet 

Longfield 

Boiken 

Green  Crimean 

Ladies  Sweeting 

Bottle  Greaning 

Gros  Mogul 

Lawver 

Blushed  Calville 

Gloria  Mundi 

Limbertwig 

Buda 

Golden  Pippin 

Mann 

Burlington 

Golden  Reinette 

Marion  Co.  Red 

Buckingham 

Gano 

Mirror 

Court  Pendu  Plat 

Gavenstein 

Mother 

Cooper’s  Market 

Grime’s  Golden 

Maiden’s  Blush 

Cardinal  Celina 

Haas 

McIntosh  Red 

Chenango  Strawberry 

Hide’s  King 

McMahon’s  White 

Bulletin  26 — Pruning  Orchard  Trees 


25 


Munson’s  Sweet 

Red  June 

Tetofsky 

Missouri  Pippin 

Rome  Beauty 

Talman’s  Sweeting 

Marshall  Red 

Ribston  Pippin 

Twenty  oz.  Pippin 

Noble  Sovarie 

Russian  Gravenstein 

Violet 

Nickajack 

Romna 

Virginia  Greening 

Northern  Spy 

Rambo 

White  Bellflower 

Northwestern  Greening 

Red  Beitigheimer 

White  Pippin 

Ostrokoff 

Red  Cheek  Pippin 

Winter  Citron 

Ortley 

Red  Canada 

Wagener 

Palouse 

Sabadkia  Sertchika 

Winesap 

Paradise  Winter  Sweet 

Skinner’s  Pippin 

William’s  Favorite 

Peck’s  Pleasant 

Stark,  Swaar 

Whitney  No.  20 

Pride  of  Washington 

Sklanka  Bogdanoff 

Winter  Fameuse 

Princess  Louise 

Saxon  Priest 

Wallbridge 

Peter 

Smith’s  Cider 

Wolf  River 

Pryor’s  Red 

Sops  of  Wine 

Willow  Twig 

Ponyik 

Seek  No  Further 

White  Astrachan 

Pewaukee 

Sweet  Bough 

White  Winter  Pearmain 

Perry  Russet 

Swinsovka 

Wealthy 

Red  Queen 

Simbrisk 

White  Pelikanoff 

Rosy  Repka 

Sweet  June 

Windsor  Chief 

Red  Astrachan 

Spitzenburgh 

Washington 

Rosemary 

Salome 

Yellow  Arcade 

Roxborough  Russet 

Summer  (Pogatch) 

Yellow  Bellflower 

Reinette  de  Caux 

Shirk 

York  Imperial 

Rambour  Queen 

Skruschapfel 

Yellow  Calville 

Revel  Pear 

Steptoe 

Yellow  Newton  Pippin 

Rawle’s  Janet 
Rhode  Island  Greening 

Stump 

CRABAPPLE. 

Yellow  Transparent 

General  Grant 

Montreal  Beauty 

Transcendent 

Hyslop 

Paul’s  Imperial 

Van  Wyck 

Marengo 

Red  Siberian 

Yellow  Siberian 

CHERRIES. 

Whitney 

Black  Tartarian 

Dyehouse 

Large-fruited  Montmor- 

Belle Magnifique 

Early  Richmond 

ency 

Bing 

Empress  Eugenie 

Lewelling( Black  Repub. 

Bessarabian 

Elton 

Late  Duke 

Beauder 

Early  Morello 

Markirsch 

Brusseler  Braune 

Frassendorfer  Weischel 

May  Duke 

Carnation 

Governor  Wood 

Montmorency 

Cerise  de  ostheim 

Griotte  du  Nord 

Napoleon  Bigarreau 

Centennial 

Heart  Shaped  Weischel 

(Royal  Ann.) 

Double  Natte 

June  Morello 

Orange  Kirsche 

26 


Washington  Agricultural  Expei  iment  Station 


Ostheim 

Reine  Hortense 

Spate  Morello 

Orel  Sweet. 

Rocky  Mountain 

Wagner 

Olivet 

Rockport 

Wragg 

Ohio  Beauty 

Schmidt’s  Bigarreau 

Yellow  Spanish 

Ostheimer  Weichsel 

PEARS. 

Andre  Desportes 

Doyenne  du  Comice 

Longworth 

Beurre  Diel 

Dt.  Reeder 

Lawrence 

Beurre  Superfin 

Deerborn’s  Seedling 

Leconte 

Beurre  Gris  d’Hiver 

Doyenne  D’Ete 

Lawson 

B.  S.  Fox 

Duchess  d’Angouleme 

Louise  Bonne  of  Jersey 

Bartlett 

Exeter 

Moscow 

Beurre  Clairgeau 

Early  Madaline 

Mt.  Vernon 

Beurre  Bose 

Easter  Beurre 

Onondago 

Brockworth  Park 

Early  Bergamotte 

Pound 

Belle  Lucrative 

Emile  de  Heyst 

Paradise  d’  Automne 

Beurre  d’ Anjou 

Forreile 

Peffer  No.  2 

Beurre  Gifford 

Frederick  Clapp 

P.  Barry 

Beurre  Hardy 

Flemish  Beauty 

Seckel 

Bloodgood 

Gray  Doyenne 

Souv  de  Congress 

Cole’s  Seedles 

Gansell’s  Bergamotte 

Saccharine 

Calvin 

Gakousky 

Tyson 

Clapp’s  Favorite 

Idaho 

Urbaniste 

Chinese  de  Ewgery 

Jaminette 

Victorina 

Crassare  Bergamotte 

Jargonelle 

White  Doyenne 

Columbia 

Josephine  de  Malines 

Wilder 

Doyenne  d’Alencon 

Jean  de  Witte. 

Winter  Nellis 

Doyenne  Boussock 

Kurskaya 

Zoe 

Dix 

Kieffer 

PLUMS  AND  PRUNES. 

Bradshaw 

Golden  Prune 

Myrobolan 

Beauty  of  Naples 

Griotte  Precoe 

Niagara 

Chippawa 

Golden  Beauty 

Ogon 

Columbia 

Hawkeye 

Pissardi 

Coe’s  Golden  Drop 

Hungarian  Prune 

Prince  Imperial 

Communia 

Hunt 

Peach 

Cheney 

Italian  Prune 

Reine  Claud  Violette 

Duane’s  Purple 

Kelsey 

Petite  d’  Agen.  Prune 

De  Sota 

Korai  Quetsche 

Pond’s  Seedling 

Dt.  Uff 

Lombard 

Polish  Mirabelle 

Eaton’s 

Long  Red 

Pottawattamie 

Early  Rose 

Marquoketa 

Quaker  Beauty 

Forest  Rose 

Mirabelle 

Richland 

Garfield 

Mistake 

Saratoge 

Geuii 

Moor’s  Artie 

Smith’s  Orleans 

Bulletin  26 — Pruning  Orchard  Trees 


27 


Silver  Prune 

Shipper’s  Pride 

Simonii 

Spaulding 

Stark’s  Green  Gage 

Tragedy 


Throop  No.  2 
Tennant 
Trabesche 
Throop  No.  1 
Unarish  Prune 
Wild  Goose 


Wolfe 
Wyant 
White  Egg 
White  Queen 
White  Nicholas 


WASHINGTON  STATE  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE  AND 
SCHOOL  OF  SCIENCE. 


Experiment  Station, 

PULLMAN,  WASHINGTON. 


Bulletin  26. 


DEPARTMENT  OF  CHEMISTRY. 


EXPERIMENTS  IN  THE  CULTURE  OF  THE  SUGAR  BEET 
IN  WASHINGTON  FOR  1895  AND  189'6. 

BY  ELTON  FULMER,  A.  M. 
December,  189G. 


All  liulletins  of  this  Station  sent  free  to  citizens  of  the  State  on 
application  to  the  Director. 


OLYMPIA,  WASH  : 

O.  C.  WHITE,  - - - STATE  PRINTER. 

1896. 


WASHINGTON  STATE  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE  AND 
SCHOOL  OF  SCIENCE. 


Experiment  Station, 

PULLMAN,  WASHINGTON. 


Bulletin  26. 


DEPARTMENT  OF  CHEMISTRY. 


EXPERIMENTS  IN  THE  CULTURE  OFjTHE'SUGAR  BEET 
IN  WASHINGTON  FOR  1895  AND  1896. 

BY  ELTON  FULMER,  A.  M. 
December,  1896. 


All  Bulletins  of  this  Station  sent  free  to  citizens  of  the  State  on 
application  to  the  Director. 


OLYMPIA,  WASH.: 

O.  C.  WHITE,  - - - STATE  PRINTER. 


THE  AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


BOARD  OF  CONTROL. 


E.  S.  Ingraham,  President,  . 

J.  W.  Arrasmith,  Vice  President, 
J.  W.  Stearns,  Treasurer , . 

H.  S.  Blandford, 

T.  R.  Tannatt, 


Seattle. 

Colfax. 

Tekoa. 

Walla  Walla. 
Farmington. 


STATION  STAFF. 


Enoch  A.  Bryan, 
W.  J.  Spillman, 
C.  V.  Piper,  . 
Elton  Fulmer,  . 
John  A.  Balmer, 
S.  B.  Nelson, 

R.  W.  Doane, 

W.  H.  Heileman, 


Director. 

Agriculturist. 

Botanist  and  Entomologist. 
Chemist. 

Horticulturist. 

V eterinarian. 

Assistant  Zoologist. 
Assistant  Chemist. 


EXPERIMENTS  IN  THE  CULTURE  OF  THE  SUGAR  BEET 
IN  WASHINGTON  FOR  1895  AND  1898. 


BY  ELTON  FULMER,  A.  M. 


The  experiments  with  sugar  beets  that  were  carried  on  by  the 
Chemical  Department  of  the  Experiment  Station  prior  to  1895  were 
published  in  Bulletin  15,  in  which  the  results  were  summarized  as 
follows: 

“Sugar  beet  seed  was  distributed  last  spring  to  1,015  farmers,  repre- 
senting every  county  in  the  state  except  Okanogan.” 

“Sample  beets  for  analysis  were  received  from  884  different  parties, 
representing  27  counties.” 

“Seventeen  hundred  ( 1,700)  samples  were  analyzed,  coming  from  101 
different  towns  — 45  being  west  of  the  Cascade  mountains  and  56  in  East- 
ern Washington.” 

“The  general  state  average  of  1,666  analyses  was  as  follows:  Weight, 
25  oz.;  sugar,  14.2  per  cent.;  purity,  82.6.” 

“The  elimination  of  122  analyses  of  a variety  wholly  unadapted  to  our 
state  gives  for  1,544  analyses  the  following  averages:  Weight,  22  oz.; 
sugar,  15.2  per  cent.;  purity,  83.8.” 

“These  results  demonstrate  that  Washington  can  produce  sugar  beets 
of  a very  superior  quality.” 

These  results  were  so  gratifying  and  seemed  to  promise  so  much 
for  the  future  of  the  state,  that  a continuance  of  the  experimenta- 
tion along  definite  and  specific  lines  was  deemed  desirable.  The 
sugar  content  and  purity  exhibited  by  beets  from  an  area  of  a few 
hundred  square  feet,  only  indicated  that  equal  success  might  fol- 
low their  cultivation  on  a larger  scale.  The  proof  of  this  point 
was  lacking.  Hence  it  was  highly  important  that  work  should  be 
undertaken  which  would  show  the  character  of  beets  grown  on  acre 
tracts,  and  also  furnish  some  figures  relative  to  the  yield  per  acre 
and  cost  of  production.  It  was  also  desirable  that  these  points 
should  be  determined  with  reference  to  the  state  as  a whole  — at 
the  same  time  taking  meteorological  observations,  in  order  that  the 
climatic  conditions  under  which  the  crops  were  grown  would  be 


6 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


positively  known.  To  carry  out  the  work,  as  above  mentioned,  it 
would  be  necessary  to  establish  beet  stations  in  various  parts  of  the 
state,  which  would  involve  an  expenditure  of  more  money  than  was 
at  the  disposal  of  the  station  for  this  purpose.  To  meet  this  emer- 
gency, the  legislature  of  1895,  recognizing  the  importance  of  the 
work  proposed,  passed  House  bill  No.  511 — a bill  appropriating 
$1,500  for  further  sugar  beet  experimentation.  The  detailed  re- 
sults of  the  work  made  possible  by  this  appropriation  are  embodied 
in  this  bulletin. 

The  plan  adopted  by  the  station  was  to  obtain  the  use  of  an  acre 
of  land,  rent  free,  for  the  experiment  — the  station  to  furnish  the 
seed  and  make  the  analyses,  the  donor  of  the  land  to  furnish  the 
labor  and  to  have  the  crop.  The  station  was  also  to  furnish  to  each 
one  undertaking  the  work  a maximum  and  minimum  self-register- 
ing thermometer,  a soil  thermometer,  and  rain  gauge.  In  each  case 
those  furnishing  the  labor  agreed  to  keep  an  accurate  account  of 
the  amount  and  value  of  the  labor  performed  and  also  to  keep  a 
correct  record  of  the  meteorological  observations.  It  is  a source 
of  much  regret  that  for  various  reasons  the  records,  both  of  labor 
and  weather,  were  in  some  cases  either  neglected  or  imperfectly 
reported,  thus  seriously  impairing  the  value  of  the  experimental 
work.  In  performing  cooperative  work  of  this  character,  where 
the  work  is  voluntary  and  does  not  carry  direct  remuneration,  it  is 
always  difficult  to  secure  the  best  possible  results.  This  is  due 
neither  to  disinclination  nor  lack  of  good  faith  on  the  part  of  the 
coOperators.  Usually  the  explanation  is  found  in  the  advent  of 
unforeseen  circumstances  in  the  surroundings  and  conditions  which 
interfere  with  the  plans  outlined  by  the  individual  farmers.  Some- 
times, however,  imperfect  cooperation  is  due  to  a lack  of  apprecia- 
tion of  the  prime  importance  of  accuracy  and  fidelity  in  scientific 
experiments.  Perhaps  due  to  a combination  of  the  above  causes, 
the  work  of  1895  was  not  as  satisfactory  as  could  have  been  de- 
sired. However,  we  are  grateful  to  all  who  participated  in  the 
work  and  believe  the  data  obtained  to  be  of  great  value,  even 
though  somewhat  incomplete.  We  found  difficulty  in  some  sections 
to  find  any  one  willing  to  work  with  the  station  in  the  manner 
above  noted.  After  a long  and  tedious  correspondence  we  finally 
selected  fourteen  places  for  the  acre  tracts  — the  choice  being  gov- 
erned largely  by  the  character  of  the  beets  raised  in  1894  at  these 
places.  The  towns  chosen  were  as  follows:  Hartford,  Snohomish 


Bulletin  26.  — Sugar  Beets. 


7 


county;  Yakima,  Yakima  county;  Crescent,  Lincoln  county;  Farm- 
ington, Colfax  and  Pullman,  Whitman  county;  Waverly,  Spokane 
county;  Chehalis,  Lewis  county;  Vancouver,  Clarke  county;  Ort- 
ing,  Pierce  county;  Nooksachk,  Whatcom  county;  Dayton,  Co- 
lumbia county;  Ellensburg,  Kittitas  county;  Puyallup,  Pierce 
county.  The  men  whose  cooperation  was  secured  were  as  follows: 
Hartford,  T.  J.  Patterson;  Yakima,  W.  T.  Clark;  Crescent,  Otto 
Wollweber;  Farmington,  F.  A.  English;  Colfax,  I.  B.  Harris; 
Pullman,  E.  B.  Monlux;  Waverly,  John  R.  Reavis;  Chehalis,  J. 
C.  Bush;  Vancouver,  C.  M.  Dietrich;  Orting,  Henry  Beckett; 
Nooksachk,  J.  Swinehart  and  J.  W.  Sefton;  Dayton,  Leroy  Brown; 
Ellensburg,  B.  P.  Shifflette;  Puyallup,  Supt.  F.  A.  Huntley. 

Some  delay  was  experienced  in  getting  the  work  under  headway 
for  the  season  of  1895,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  appropriation  did 
not  become  available  until  ninety  days  after  the  approval  of  the 
bill.  We  were  able,  however,  to  furnish  the  seed  in  time  for  early 
spring  planting,  although  the  meteorological  instruments  were  not 
furnished  to  the  different  stations  until  August.  Unfortunately, 
the  spring  of  1895  was  exceedingly  wet  and  cold,  and  in  every  way 
unfavorable  to  seed  germination.  These  unusual  climatic  condi- 
tions, coupled  with  a disastrous  visitation  of  the  flea  beetle  just  as 
the  beet  plants  were  coming  up,  brought  about  a total  failure  of 
the  plantings  at  Farmington,  Colfax  and  Pullman.  The  acre  at 
Yakima  was  also  reported  a failure,  due,  largely,  to  the  ravages  of 
squirrels  and  rabbits.  While  these  failures  are  somewhat  discour- 
aging, they  are  not  to  be  considered  as  serious  unfavorable  indica- 
tions. The  insect  ravages  would  have  been  of  little  consequence 
had  the  weather  been  such  that  seeds  could  have  germinated 
earlier,  for  the  pests  did  not  appear  until  the  time  when  the  beet 
plant  is  usually  able  to  resist  their  attacks.  There  is  no  beet  grow- 
ing country  in  the  world  that  is  not  subject  to  occasional  adverse 
climatic  conditions.  As  will  be  shown  later,  our  climate  will  com- 
pare more  than  favorably  with  that  which  prevails  in  many  portions 
of  beet  growing  Europe. 

The  area  of  land  actually  devoted  to  these  experiments  was  — one 
acre  at  Crescent,  Waverly,  Chehalis,  Vancouver,  Orting,  Nooksachk, 
Dayton,  Yakima,  Farmington,  Colfax  and  Pullman;  one-half  acre 
at  Puyallup  and  Ellensburg,  and  one-eighth  acre  at  Hartford. 

When  the  beets  were  matured,  instructions  were  given  to  harvest 
about  fifty  samples  from  each  field,  selecting  them  in  such  a way 


8 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station . 


that  they  would  represent  a fair  average  of  the  beets  growing  in  the 
entire  field.  Each  one  of  these  was  analyzed  separately,  in  order 
to  ascertain  if  they  possessed  a uniform  character.  We  give  below 
the  averages  of  these  analyses  for  each  locality. 


Locality. 

Date  of  analysis.. 

No.  samples 

Average  weight , 
ounces 

Average  sugar 
in  beet 

Average  sugar 
in  juice 

Average  purity... 

POOREST  SAMPLE. 

BEST  SAMPLE. 

Sugar  in 
beet 

Sugar  in 
juice 

Purity 

Sugar  in 
beet 

Sugar  in 
juice 

Purity 

Puyallup 

Oct. 

21 

50 

17 

17.1 

18.0 

89.1 

13.5 

14.2 

87.0 

19.2 

20.2 

94.0 

Chehalis 

Nov. 

1 

50 

23* 

16.4 

17.2 

85.1 

11.1 

11.7 

75.0 

19.0 

20.0 

93.0 

Ellensburg... 

Nov. 

2 

52 

14 

17.1 

18.0 

88.2 

14.7 

15.5 

81.1 

19.0 

20.0 

90.1 

Hartford 

Nov. 

6 

50 

12 

17.0 

17.9 

88.8 

14.6 

15.4 

81.9 

20.0 

21.1 

89.1 

Nooksachk .. 

Nov. 

21 

50 

19 

15.6 

16.4 

89.1 

11.9 

12.5 

80.1 

18.0 

19.0 

93.1 

Dayton 

Nov. 

29 

50 

11 

13.6 

14.3 

81.3 

8.1 

8.5 

73.5 

17.4 

18.3 

90.5 

Vancouver... 

Nov.  30 

51 

34 

14.2 

15.0 

87.2 

10.0 

10.5 

75.6 

17.8 

18.7 

90.7 

Orting 

Dec. 

3 

56 

18 

16.8 

17.7 

92.7 

12.9 

13.6 

82.4 

20.9 

22.0 

89.4 

Waverly 

Dec. 

5 

55 

17 

18.5 

19.5 

89.4 

12.1 

12.7 

78.9 

22.4 

23.6 

92.9 

Crescent 

Dec. 

7 

57 

8 

15.8 

16.6 

87.8 

10.0 

10.5 

80.2 

19.2 

20.2 

90.2 

The  seed  furnished  by  the  station  was  the  variety  4 ‘Klein  Wanz- 
lebener,”  imported  through  the  Beet  Sugar  Company  at  Watson- 
ville, California. 

The  above  figures  are  worthy  of  careful  consideration.  It 
should  be  emphasized  that  they  do  not  represent  single  analyses, 
but  are  the  averages  of  typical  beets  taken  from  acre  tracts,  and 
can  justly  be  said  to  show  the  character  of  the  entire  acre.  As 
far  as  individual  analyses  are  concerned,  we  believe  there  is  no 
well  authenticated  analyses  on  record  showing  a higher  percentage  of 
sugar  and  purity,  than  the  best  sample  received  from  Waverly. 
In  all  cases  the  analyses  were  made  within  one  week  of  the  date 
of  harvesting,  hence  it  is  noteworthy  that  the  superior  character 
of  the  beets  is  maintained  until  as  late  as  December  1st,  after  hav- 
ing been  exposed  to  the  fall  rains.  This  is  a point  of  very  great 
importance,  and  will  be  more  fully  discussed  in  the  subsequent 
pages. 

CHARACTER  OF  SOIL. 

Several  different  types  of  soil  were  represented  in  these  experi- 
ments, varying  from  a light  sandy  soil  to  the  dark,  heavy  clay 
loam  of  the  Palouse  country.  At  Puyallup  the  type  was  the  alder 
bottom  land  so  common  in  Western  Washington.  It  is  a soil  gen- 
erally rich  in  organic  matter  and  phosphoric  acid,  but  deficient  in 
lime  and  potash.  At  Chehalis  the  acre  was  divided  into  two  equal 
tracts,  one  of  which  was  a light,  sandy  loam  with  good  natural 


Bulletin  26.  — Sugar  Beets. 


9 


drainage;  the  other  was  “dark,  heavy  prairie  ground”  which, 
although  different  in  some  respects,  may  be  classed  with  the  alder 
bottom  land.  At  Ellensburg,  near  the  foothills  of  the  Cascades 
on  the  eastern  side,  and  at  Orting,  near  the  foothills  on  the  west- 
ern side,  the  soil  possessed  a strong  sandy  character,  that  at  Orting 
being  of  a finer  texture,  and  containing  more  organic  matter,  but 
much  less  lime  and  potash  than  that  at  Ellensburg.  The  type  at 
Hartford  was  the  red  fir  upland,  containing,  however,  more  sand 
than  is  common  to  the  type  in  general.  Like  the  alder  bottom 
land,  the  fir  upland  is  usually  deficient  in  lime  and  potash.  The 
soil  at  Nooksachk  was  very  peculiar,  and  cannot  be  classified  as  one 
of  the  Washington  types.  It  was  land  that  had  been  ditch  drained 
for  some  time,  its  chief  characteristic  being  the  very  large  amount 
of  unhumified  organic  matter  it  contains.  It  is  very  deep,  light 
and  porous.  The  plat  selected  at  Dayton  was  an  unfortunate  one, 
and  accounts  in  a large  measure  for  the  inferior  quality  of  the  beets 
raised  on  it.  It  must  be  remembered,  however,  that  this  is  only  a 
relative  and  not  absolute  inferiority.  The  beets  were  grown  upon 
a high  and  exposed  side  hill,  where  the  drying  power  of  the  sun 
and  winds  prevented  normal  growth.  The  soil  was  a clay  loam. 
At  Vancouver  the  beets  were  raised  upon  the  first  bench  above  the 
Columbia  river.  Although  the  saccharine  matter  in  them  was 
lower  than  in  those  raised  at  other  places  (Dayton  excepted),  yet 
when  we  consider  their  average  weight  of  34  ounces,  their  value 
per  acre  would  be  even  more  than  those  from  Waverly  containing 
19.5  per  cent,  of  sugar,  and  having  an  average  weight  of  17 
ounces.  The  soil  at  Waverly  can  neither  be  called  a sandy  loam, 
nor  yet  a clay  loam  — it  is  about  midway  between.  It  seems  to  be 
the  transition  point  between  the  clay  loam  of  the  Paiouse  country 
and  gravelly  soil  of  Spokane  county.  It  is  an  excellent  soil  for 
beets.  The  soil  at  Crescent  is  quite  similar  to  that  at  Waverly, 
but  contains  less  organic  matter  and  less  fine  sand.  It  could  well 
be  called  a light  clay  loam. 

In  connection  with  these  facts,  concerning  the  soil,  it  is  well  to 
consider  the  general  characteristics  of  Washington  soils  in  their 
relation  to  sugar  beet  culture.  It  is  conceded  by  the  best  authori- 
ties that  a certain  type  of  soil,  viz.,  a light  sandy  loam,  is  best 
adapted  to  the  habits  of  the  sugar  beet.  But  this  type  is  found  in 
only  limited  areas  in  the  state,  and  generally  in  regions  where 
crops  cannot  be  grown  without  irrigation.  The  types  of  soil  upon 


10 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


which  beets  have  been  grown  in  this  state,  are  the  heavy  clay  loam 
of  the  Palouse  country,  the  light  sandy  soil  of  the  Kittitas  and 
Yakima  valleys  and  the  upland  and  bottom  land  of  Western  Wash- 
ington, the  latter  often  containing  a large  amount  of  organic  mat- 
ter. Thus  the  so-called  “standard”  beet  soil  is  not  standard  for 
this  state.  A light  sandy  loam  is  recommended  for  beets  ( 1 ) be- 
cause it  usually  has  considerable  depth ; ( 2 ) because  it  is  easily 
penetrated  by  roots;  (3)  because  it  does  not  retain  excessive 
moisture;  (4)  because  it  permits  a comparatively  free  circulation 
of  air  to  the  roots.  Are  not  these  conditions  fulfilled  in  Washing  - 
ton  soils  ? Those  of  Eastern  Washington  are  undoubtedly  of  vol- 
canic origin.  The  hills  and  hollows  of  the  Palouse  country  owe 
their  characteristic  configuration  to  the  agency  of  winds,  and 
hence,  as  would  be  naturally  expected,  their  soil  is  in  an  exceed- 
ingly fine  state  of  division,  and  in  most  localities  also  very  deep. 
This  fineness  and  depth  make  it  an  easy  matter  for  the  beet  root  to 
follow  its  natural  inclinations  in  the  matter  of  downward  growth 
and  development.  There  is  rarely  an  excess  of  water  in  the  soil 
during  the  growing  season  because  of  the  scant  rainfall  during 
that  period.  All  root  crops  make  a phenomenal  growth  here,  thus 
testifying  that  the  supply  of  air  so  essential  to  crops  growing  under 
ground,  is  ample. 

In  Western  Washington,  the  soils  are  in  the  main  the  results  of 
glacial  action  and  sedimentation.  Hence  they  are  not  so  finely  di- 
vided as  the  wind  soils.  By  the  gradual  accumulation  of  decayed 
leaves  and  vegetation,  they  have  been  largely  modified  in  their 
physical  conditions,  the  large  amount  of  unhumified  organic  matter 
making  them  light  and  porous.  This  accumulation  has  also  natur- 
ally led  to  an  increase  in  depth  which,  together  with  the  porosity, 
gives  to  the  growing  roots  freedom  of  development,  and  permits 
free  circulation  of  air.  Thus  it  is  that  the  heavy  clay  loam  of  the 
Palouse  country,  the  drift  soils  of  Western  Washington,  the  loess 
soils  of  Nebraska,  and  the  lighter  soils  of  California  are  essentially 
the  same  in  their  relation  to  the  production  of  root  crops.  For  the 
comparison  of  chemical  composition  we  give  the  following  analyti- 
cal table  including  soils  from  Eastern  and  Western  Washington, 
the  beet  districts  of  Nebraska  and  California,  of  France  and 
Russia  : 


Bulletin  26.  — Sugar  Beets. 


11 


.6 

1 

| 72.6990 

2.0470 

0.9140 

1.9300 

2.8340 

9.9740 

0.0930 



6.2070 

King 
county , 
average  of 
2 analyses. 

77.7844 

5.0542 

0.1127 

0.0304 

0.3561 

0.4940 

0.3887 

3.1047 

4.6711 

0.0639 

0.0278 

0.0145 

1.5733 

6.1016 

99.7774 

f France. 

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Fremont, 

Nebraska. 

67.5283 

11.9390 

0.1732 

0.7867 

0.1432 

0.4355 

0.2585 

1.3009 

7.9041 

0.1008 

0.0378 

0.0181 

3.0800 

6.4805 

100.1866 

* Chino , 
Califor- 
nia. 

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© : 

Yakima 
county , 
average  of 
5 analyses. 

73.5939 

8.0745 

0.4003 

0.2301 

0.5992 

1.4360 

0.1913 

5.5041 

6.1005 

0.1250 

0.1981 

0.0046 

1.5176 

2.4105 

100.3857 

Whatcom 
county, 
average  of 
6 analyses. 

64.4965 
6.6728 
0.0760 
0.2368 
0.7433 
. 0.8632 
0.2128 
6.8556 
8.4740 
0.1607 
0.0192 
0.0102 
4.3878 
7.3983 

100.4072 

Norfolk, 

Nebraska. 

57.1863 

16.0350 

0.0707 

0.8104 

0.1591 

0.5673 

0.7682 

3.7427 

8.0356 

0.1199 

0.1287 

0.0079 

4.2481 

7.7425 

99.6224 

Spokane 
county, 
average  of 
5 analyses. 

67.5044 

8.0786 

0.1418 

0.5348 

0.1719 

0.6923 

0.1977 

3.8161 

7.7156 

0.1362 

0.1651 

0.0096 

2.3799 

8.2813 

99.8253 

Whitman 

county. 

62.8314 

13.6630 

0.3010 

0.6351 

0.3739 

1.0814 

0.7277 

4.5539 

7.5263 

0.1423 

Trace. 

0.0204 

4.5234 

3.6124 

99.9922 

a> 


Rep.  Cal.  Sta.,  1890.  f “ Sugar  Beet,”  pp.  103-4.  % “ La  Bettrave  a Sucre,”  p.  82. 


12 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


Sugar  beets  draw  quite  heavily  upon  the  soil  for  potash  and 
phosphoric  acid.  An  inspection  of  this  table  shows  that  Washing- 
ton soils  are  richer  in  phosphoric  acid  than  any  of  the  others,  but 
contain  less  potash  than  those  in  Nebraska,  California  and  France. 
The  potash  percentage  in  the  Russian  soil  is  abnormal.  Washing- 
ton soils  are  capable  then  of  producing  good  crops  of  beets  because 
of  chemical  composition  as  well  as  physical  conditions. 

As  before  stated,  the  meteorological  data  received  from  some  of 
the  beet  growers,  is  very  incomplete.  The  object  in  view  — that 
of  determining  the  exact  climatic  conditions  under  which  the  ex- 
perimental beets  were  grown  — was  defeated  by  our  inability  to 
furnish  the  instruments  until  very  late  in  the  season.  However, 
the  data  received  is  valuable,  meager  as  it  is,  particularly  as 
showing  the  kind  of  weather  prevailing  during  the  harvesting  sea- 
son. We  give  it  below  as  fully  as  possible. 


CRESCENT. 


Date. 

TEMPERATURE 
OF  AIR. 

Mean  soil  tempera- 
ture,   

ha 

§ 

TEMPERA- 
TURE OF 
AIR 

TEMPERA- 
TURE OF 
SOIL. 

Mean  max- 
imum  

Mean  min- 
imum  

* 9 
35 
o 
3 

1' 

Maximum .... 

Minimum 

Maximum .... 

Minimum 

1895. 

July 

86.4 

49.0 

77.2 

0.58 

95 

42 

82 

70 

August 

87.2 

44.7 

71.5 

0.00 

98 

36 

79 

62 

September 

65.1 

37.4 

56.3 

1.82 

90 

25 

72 

50 

October 

66.6 

31.3 

52.4 

1.62 

77 

18 

61 

39 

November  

42.1 

24.9 

1.94 

54 

7 

December 

35!3 

21.4 

1 86 

48 

—3 

1896. 

•Tannarv 

36.0 

21.3 

1.54 

46 

2 

Eebrna.ry  . 

43.8 

28.4 

0 55 

54 

13 

March 

48.3 

25.0 

38.8 

1.36 

64 

1 

49 

31 

April 

55.7 

30.7 

42.4 

2.13 

70 

19 

50 

31 

May 

64.2 

37.5 

48.0 

3.88 

85 

31 

68 

41 

June  

78.8 

45.4 

65.5 

0.39 

98 

34 

80 

52 

It  is  worthy  of  note  that  the  beets  raised  at  Crescent  yielded  16.6 
per  cent,  sugar,  and  a purity  of  87.8.  They  were  not  harvested 
until  about  December  1.  During  July  and  August  they  received 
but  0.58  inches  of  rain.  During  September,  October  and  Novem- 
ber the  rainfall  amounted  to  5.38  inches.  There  was  no  evidence 
of  second  growth  after  exposure  to  this  rain,  probably  because  the 
very  cool  nights  and  comparatively  low  mean  maximum  tempera- 
ture were  unfavorable  to  such  growth.  The  severe  freezing  weather 
indicated  by  the  minimum  temperature  of  7°,  which  occurred  on 


Bulletin  26.  — Sugar1  Beets. 


13 


the  22d  of  November,  lasting  for  four  days,  and  which  was  fol- 
lowed by  thawing  weather  from  the  26th  to  30th,  appears  to  have 
had  no  deleterious  effect  upon  the  character  of  the  beets. 


CHEHALIS. 


Date. 

TEMPERATURE 
OB'  AIR. 

Mean  soil  tempera- 
ture  

$ 
5-2 
S 2. 

TEMPERA- 
TURE OF 
AIR. 

TEMPERA- 
TURE OF 
SOIL. 

Mean  max- 
imum  

Mean  min- 
imum  

1 

S' 

3 

1' 

J Maximum .... 

Minimum 

J Maximum.... 

Minimum 

1895. 

October 

46.8 

0.17 

55 

40 

November  

50.2 

38.0 

5.33 

65 

52 

34 

December 

44.8 

12  09 

58 

1896. 

January  

46.0 

36.6 

8.22 

55 

46 

28 

February  

50.5 

38.7 

5.32 

62 

50 

32 

April  

55.8 

42.5 

5.20 

71 

52 

38 

May 

62.8 

47.4 

3.80 

85 

62 

42 

June 

73.6 

58.0 

1.25 

99 

70 

48 

July 

84.2 

66.7 

0 20 

97 

75 

62 

PUYALLUP. 


1895. 

September 

October 

November 

December 

1896. 

January 


64.8 

41.3 

56.3 

74 

27 

59 

52 

58.3 

38.4 

.53.1 

70 

27 

60 

48 

47.9 

34.7 

4.88 

61 

19 

43.7 

34.0 

11.51 

58 

21 

46.0 

33.1 

6.11 

60 

16 

The  beets  grown  at  Chehalis  were  harvested  October  22,  and 
hence  had  not  been  exposed  to  the  fall  rains.  The  same  is  true  of 
those  raised  at  Puyallup,  which  were  harvested  about  October  15. 
In  both  cases  the  tops  were  still  fresh  and  green,  giving  evidence 
of  a lack  of  maturity.  It  is  probable  that  had  these  beets  re- 
mained in  the  ground  a month  longer,  protected  from  rains,  that 
the  sugar  content  would  have  been  somewhat  higher.  The  Che- 
halis beets  were  much  larger  than  those  grown  at  Puyallup.  This 
is  explained  by  the  fact  that  the  rows  were  30  inches  apart  at 
Chehalis  instead  of  18  inches  as  at  Puyallup.  We  wish  here  to 
state  again  that  our  experiments  show  conclusively  that  the  size 
of  the  beets  has  less  influence  on  sugar  content  and  purity  in  case 
of  Washington  beets  than  those  grown  elsewhere  in  the  United 
States.  We  are  unable  at  present  to  give  an  explanation  of  this, 
beyond  the  evident  fact  that  for  some  reason  the  energy  of  the 
large  beets  is  expended  more  in  the  formation  of  sugar  than  the 
production  of  woody  fiber. 


14 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


VANCOUVER. 


Date. 


1895. 

November 

December 

1896. 

January 

February 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 


TEMPERATURE 
OF  AIR. 

Mean  soil  tempera- 
ture  

£ 

If 

TEMPERA- 
TURE OF 
AIR. 

TEMPERA- 
TURE OF 
SOIL. 

Mean  max- 
imum   

Mean  min- 
imum  

- | 
o' 
3 

3 

Maximum .... 

Minimum ■ 

Maximum .... 

Minimum 

51.2 

37.0 

42.6 

64 

23 

51 

35 

45.6 

36.4 

38.0 

60 

28 

47 

34 

47.3 

34.8 

38.3 

58 

20 

45 

33 

52.8 

37.7 

42.0 

66 

26 

47 

36 

55.3 

34.4 

44.2 

67 

19 

51 

33 

56.1 

38.6 

48.3 

68 

26 

54 

44 

62.4 

43.5 

51.6 

84 

37 

61 

46 

72.1 

47.9 

63.3 

93 

39 

75 

53 

82.5 

52.7 

74.6 

96 

47 

83 

65 

75.8 

53.3 

71.4 

93 

47 

81 

63 

Unfortunately,  the  record  of  rainfall,  together  with  all  data  con- 
cerning cost  of  production  and  details  of  work,  were  lost  by  high 
water.  Hence,  the  experiments  at  Vancouver  can  almost  be  called 
a failure.  On  a subsequent  page  some  data  will  be  found  concern- 
ing the  experimental  work  at  this  point  for  the  year  1896. 


NOOKSACHK. 


TEMPERATURE 
OF  AIR. 

JS 

S a 

sa 

TEMPERA- 
TURE OF 
AIR. 

TEMPERA- 
TURE OF 
SOIL. 

Date. 

Mean  max- 
imum  

Mean  min- 
imum  

o 

ft 

! 

a 

- g 

o' 

3 

3 

Maximum .... 

Minimum 

Maximum .... 

Minimum 

1895. 

August 

81.6 

72.4 

55.2 

0.41 

92 

72 

64 

44 

September 

63.1 

56.1 

41.7 

5.55 

80 

51 

45 

38 

October 

60.0 

49.3 

39.5 

0.57 

78 

30 

46 

30 

HARTFORD. 


1895. 

Septemb  er 

70.7 

39.5 

47.2 

41.7 

2 26 

78 

28 

50 

40 

October 

66.7 

35.1 

0.64 

75 

29 

50 

38 

Nooksachk  beets  showed  16.4  per  cent,  sugar,  purity  89.1,  and 
those  from  Hartford  17.9  percent,  sugar,  purity 88. 8.  The  former 
were  harvested  November  15,  after  having  received  5^  inches  of 
rain  in  September,  which  was  followed  by  a warm  October.  The 
latter  were  harvested  November  1. 


Bulletin  26.  — Sugar  Beets. 


15 


PULLMAN. 


Date. 

TEMPERATURE 
OF  AIR. 

Precipitation 
in  inches 

TEMPERATURE 
OF  AIR. 

Mean  max- 
imum  

Mean  min- 
imum  

Maximum 

Minimum 

1893. 

1.75 

1.75 

3 13 

61 

May 

57.9 

40.4 

1.74 

79 

33 

June 

66.4 

44.2 

0.67 

79 

37 

July 

78.1 

47.4 

1.05 

98 

37 

August 

82.0 

48.3 

0.00 

95 

38 

September 

68.3 

45.3 

2 32 

93 

33 

October 

50.8 

36.6 

4.64 

64 

26 

November 

40.6 

30.0 

3.53 

55 

19 

December 

39.6 

31.1 

1.54 

48 

17 

1894. 

January 

30.8 

21.7 

3.33 

44 

20 

February 

31.0 

19.3 

0.85 

40 

—10 

March 

42  1 

29  5 

3.17 

58 

18 

April 

53.5 

36^5 

L23 

73 

26 

May 

63.5 

43.5 

1.82 

85 

30 

June 

67.6 

47.4 

0.89 

84 

32 

July 

81.2 

57.1 

0.44 

94 

41 

August 

85.4 

51.4 

0.10 

98 

42 

October 

51.8 

38.3 

2.84 

77 

31 

November 

48.2 

35.2 

2.05 

61 

20 

December 

34.2 

25.2 

0.69 

43 

11 

1895. 

January 

32.1 

22.1 

1.16 

44 

4 

February 

41.2 

27.4 

1.07 

55 

19 

March 

46.2 

29.2 

0.57 

62 

11 

April 

60.2 

36.0 

0.83 

76 

25 

May 

62.7 

40.1 

2.12 

82 

31 

June 

71.2 

45.4 

0.19 

90 

36 

November 

42.2 

29.3 

2.24 

58 

12 

December 

35.2 

24.3 

0.92 

49 

4 

1896. 

January 

37.3 

26.3 

2.75 

51 

5 

February 

42.2 

31.5 

1.65 

59 

17 

March 

44.2 

27.3 

1.73 

66 

3 

April 

51.2 

34.4 

1.89 

62 

22 

May 

57.0 

38.4 

2.42 

84 

30 

June 

75.5 

46.2 

1.60 

94 

38 

July 

86.1 

55.7 

0.15 

98 

44 

August 

82.1 

50.3 

1.21 

95 

38 

September 

69.2 

43.4 

0.43 

85 

30 

October 

60.1 

48.2 

0.90 

77 

25 

November 

35.9 

24.1 

6.81 

60 

—12 

The  meteorological  data  above  given  for  Pullman,  are  taken  from 
the  records  of  the  voluntary  weather  observer  for  this  point.  These 
figures  would  be  approximately  correct  for  the  greater  portion  of 
Whitman  county.  Although  the  records  are  incomplete  for  the 
calendar  year  1895,  the  total  precipitation  was  only  a little  more 
than  half  as  much  as  for  the  year  1896.  The  latter  year,  up  to 
December  1,  had  21.54  inches  precipitation.  The  amount  for 
1894,  viz.,  1*7.4  inches,  is  about  normal  for  this  county. 


16 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


COMPARISON  OF  RAINFALL  AT  CHINO,  CALIFORNIA,  FARMINGTON  AND 
PULLMAN,  WASHINGTON. 


Date. 

Chino 

Farmington.. 

Pullman 

Date. 

Chino 

Farmington.. 

Pullman 

Date. 

Chino 

Farmington.. 

Pullman 

1893. 

In. 

In. 

In. 

1894. 

In. 

In. 

In. 

1895. 

In. 

In. 

In. 

Sept 

2.32 

Nov 

2.05 

Oct 

0.08 

0.25 

Oct 

1.47 

4.64 

Dec 

8.25 

0.69 

Nov .... 

0.66 

2. 48 

2.24 

Nov 

0 61 

3 53 

1895. 

0^66 

L40 

0^92 

Dec 

3.92 

1.54 

Jan 

9.02 

1.16 



1896. 

1894. 

Feb 

1.01 

1.07 

.Tan  

2.24 

2.88 

2.75 

Jan 

1.10 

3.33 

March 

3.87 

0.57 

Feb 

L60 

1.65 

Feb 

0.51 

0.85 

April 

0.31 

0.83 

Ma.rrVh 

4.22 

L14 

1.73 

March 

0.47 

3.17 

May 

0.30 

1.72 

2 12 

April.  .. 

L90 

1 ^89 

April 

0.25 

1.23 

June 

0.31 

0.19 

May 

2^20 

2 ! 42 

May 

0 21 

1.82 

July 

0.52 

Juno 

0^82 

L60 

Sept 

0.24 

Aug 

July 

0 33 

0 15 

Oct 

2.84 

Sept 

2.30 

Aug 

olio 

1.21 

The  above  table  is  given  for  comparison.  It  is  of  more  interest 
than  inherent  value,  because  the  temperature  conditions  as  well  as 
rainfall  at  Chino  are  very  different  from  those  which  prevail  here. 
Chino  has  also  an  ideal  harvesting  season,  because  of  the  minimum 
precipitation  which  occurs  from  June  until  December. 

In  considering  the  relations  of  annual  precipitation  to  sugar  beet 
production,  its  distribution  during  the  growing  and  harvesting 
seasons  is  perhaps  fully  as  important  as  the  aggregate  amount  for 
the  year.  Any  great  amount  of  precipitation  during  the  harvest- 
ing season  is  prejudicial,  not  only  because  of  the  increased  labor 
connected  with  harvesting  and  delivering  the  beets,  but  also  be- 
cause of  the  tendency  of  the  rain  to  induce  a second  growth  in  the 
beets,  which  always  lowers  the  sugar  content  and  purity  to  a 
greater  or  less  extent.  Hence  it  is  desirable  that  the  months  of 
September,  October  and  November  particularly  should  be  com- 
paratively free  from  rain,  especially  when  accompanied  by  warm 
weather. 

Because  the  beet  growing  countries  have  a certain  amount  of 
rainfall  it  has  been  generally  conceded  that  the  successful  culture 
of  sugar  beets  depends  upon  a certain  maximum  and  minimum 
amount.  It  is  supposed  that  anything  below  the  minimum 
amount,  while  it  may  produce  beets  rich  in  sugar,  will  reduce  the 
tonnage  yield  below  the  limit  of  profitable  production;  while  an 
amount  of  precipitation  greater  than  the  maximum  will  produce  a 
large  tonnage  yield,  but  will  reduce  the  percentage  of  sugar  in  the 
juice  below  the  limit  of  profitable  manufacture.  It  is  a singular 


IT 


Bulletin  26.  — Sugar  Beets. 

and  noteworthy  fact  that  the  amount  of  rainfall  throughout  the 
Palouse  country  is  below  the  minimum,  while  that  west  of  the 
mountains  is  in  most  places  above  the  maximum,  and  that  in  both 
of  these  sections  beets  of  an  excellent  quality  are  produced,  which 
give  a satisfactory  tonnage  yield. 

In  those  portions  of  Eastern  Washington  outside  of  the  irriga- 
tion districts,  the  average  annual  precipitation  does  not  exceed  18 
inches.  During  the  calendar  year  1895,  the  total  in  Whitman 
county  was  slightly  less  than  12  inches,  and  yet  drouth  conditions 
did  not  prevail.  The  effect  of  the  low  rainfall  was  more  marked 
upon  garden  produce  and  root  crops  than  upon  wheat  and  other 
cereals.  The  normal  amount  of  rainfall,  i.  e .,  18  inches,  furnishes 
sufficient  moisture  for  the  full  development  of  crops  in  general  in 
Eastern  Washington,  while  in  the  eastern  and  middle  states  the 
same  amount  would  involve  conditions  of  extreme  drouth.  This 
contrast  can  be  rationally  explained  by  the  difference  in  the  texture 
and  general  physical  properties  of  the  soil,  and  the  relation  of  the 
surface  water  to  the  underlying  water  table.  In  the  humid  regions 
of  the  east  the  average  annual  rainfall  is,  approximately,  40  inches. 
There  the  soil  is  of  such  a character  that  the  water  received  upon 
its  surface  percolates  through  it  with  little  difficulty  until  it  reaches 
the  underground  water.  The  character  of  the  soil,  and  the  prox- 
imity of  the  water  table  to  the  surface,  are  conditions  which  pro- 
duce a moist  subsoil;  and  wherever  this  exists  the  percolation  above 
mentioned  is  quite  rapid.  In  these  humid  regions  it  is  estimated 
that  at  least  one-half  of  the  total  rainfall  is  lost  for  plant  use  by 
running  off  the  surface  in  streams  and  by  its  downward  movement 
through  the  subsoil.  Hence,  the  available  moisture  is  only  a little 
greater  than  the  total  precipitation  in  Eastern  Washington.  Here 
there  seems  to  be  no  connection  whatever  between  the  surface 
water  and  an  underlying  water  table.  At  a comparatively  short 
distance  below  the  surface  a dry  substratum  of  soil  is  invariably 
encountered  which  is  almost  impervious  to  water  because  of  its 
finely  divided  state,  and  because  of  its  distance  from  underground 
water.  This  dry  substratum  practically  prevents  any  of  the 
moisture  received  upon  the  surface  from  being  lost  by  percolation. 
All  of  it  is  retained  within  easy  reach  of  the  plant  roots.  The  loss 
by  evaporation  is  also  less  than  with  soils  of  a coarser  texture.  The 
18  inches  precipitation  for  Eastern  Washington  includes  both  rain 
and  snow  fall.  Just  how  much  of  this  is  available  for  vegetation 


—2 


18 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


is  as  yet  an  unsolved  problem.  It  is  certain,  however,  that  the  soil 
receives  but  little  moisture  from  snow  which  is  removed  by  Chinook 
winds.  It  is  probable  that  in  an  average  season  not  more  than  12 
inches  are  directly  available  for  crops,  this  estimate  being  based 
on  the  assumption  that  little  or  no  water  is  lost  by  downward  per- 
colation, or  by  running  off  the  surface.  It  should  also  be  remem- 
bered that  although  evaporation  in  general  is  much  more  rapid  here 
than  in  the  humid  regions,  the  loss  of  soil  moisture  by  evaporation 
may  be  no  greater  — perhaps  even  less  — due  to  the  greater  power 
of  our  finely  divided  soil  to  retain  it.  Thus  may  be  explained,  in 
part  at  least,  why  the  quality  and  yield  of  sugar  beets  grown  under 
this  small  precipitation  equals  or  exceeds  that  of  beets  grown  under 
the  “standard”  conditions  of  rainfall.  It  is  very  noticeable  that 
in  both  Eastern  and  Western  Washington,  the  monthly  rainfall  for 
June,  July  and  August  is  far  below  the  minimum  amount  consid- 
ered necessary  for  these  months  by  Dr.  McMurtrie. 

REPORTS  FROM  ACRE  TRACTS. 

Concerning  the  acre  tract  at  Chehalis  we  quote  the  following 
statements  of  J.  C.  Bush: 

“Two  pieces  of  ground  containing  each  one-half  acre  were  selected. 
The  first  was  a sandy  soil  and  the  second  a dark,  heavy  prairie  ground. 
The  ground  was  plowed  very  deep  when  in  good  condition,  thoroughly 
harrowed,  and  the  clods  pulverized  to  fine  dirt.  April  26  the  sandy  half- 
acre was  planted,  a common  garden  drill  being  used,  and  the  rows  planted 
thirty  inches  apart  which  was  supposed  to  be  as  close  as  they  could  be 
cultivated  with  a horse.  April  30  the  prairie  half  acre  was  planted.  The 
ground  was  worked  twice  with  a horse  cultivator;  the  beets  were  hoed 
and  thinned  during  May  and  June,  and  were  given  a “laying  by”  hoeing 
July  10.  There  w^ere  some  sand  fleas  on  the  sandy  patch  and  for  a while 
they  seemed  to  be  injuring  it,  but  the  beets  began  to  grow  vigorous^ 
about  the  middle  of  June,  and  nothing  bothered  them  after  that.  The 
season  was  very  dry,  the  rainfall  for  June  being  0.59,  July  0.27,  and  for 
August  only  0.02  inches.  The  dry  weather  was  noticeable  on  the  prairie 
field,  but  did  not  seem  to  affect  the  other  patch.  The  beets  were  harvested 
October  22.  The  tops  were  cut  off,  the  beets  thrown  into  wagons  and 
hauled  to  the  scales.  The  yield  was:  Sandy  patch,  14,294  pounds;  prairie 
patch,  10,190  pounds;  total,  24,464  pounds.  If  the  rows  had  been  eighteen 
inches  apart  (as  they  are  when  sugar  beet  raising  is  a business)  instead 
of  thirty  inches,  the  yield  at  the  same  rate  would  have  been  40,929  pounds. 
A total  of  thirty- two  day’s  time  for  one  man,  and  ten  day's  time  for  a 
horse,  were  spent  on  the  patches.  This  was  more  than  was  really  neces- 
sary, as  it  was  found  by  experience  that  some  things  could  have  been 


Bulletin  26.  — Sugar  Beets. 


19 


done  at  a considerable  saving  of  time  if  the  experimenter  had  only  known 
how.  The  chemical  analysis  showed  that  the  percentage  of  sugar  was 
almost  exactly  the  same  in  the  twenty-six  samples  from  the  sandy  patch, 
and  the  twenty-six  grown  on  prairie  soil,  but  the  purity  of  the  former  was 
nearly  4 per  cent,  higher.  The  tifty-two  samples  analyzed  were  taken 
from  every  row  and  from  every  part  of  both  patches,  and  included  big, 
little,  and  medium  beets.  They  were  as  fair  a representation  of  the  whole 
lot  as  it  was  possible  to  obtain.” 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  above  data  that  1*75  days  intervened  be- 
tween the  dates  of  planting  and  harvesting.  Mr.  Bush  estimates 
the  value  of  the  labor  employed  at  $37,  but  states  that  in  beet 
raising  as  a business,  using  proper  machinery  and  methods,  this 
cost  would  be  very  much  lessened.  Allowing  $10  for  rent  of 
ground,  $2  for  seed,  and  $37  for  labor,  the  net  profit  from  the  20 
tons  of  beets,  if  sold  to  a factory  at  $4  per  ton,  would  be  $31,  less 
the  cost  of  delivery. 

At  Nooksachk,  one-half  acre  was  raised  by  J.  Swinehart,  and 
one-half  acre  by  J.  W.  Sefton.  Mr.  Swinehart  furnishes  the  fol- 
lowing data  as  to  cost  of  production  of  his  half  acre : 


Plowing,  \ day $1  50 

Harrowing  and  rolling,  | day 1 50 

Raking,  1 day 1 50 

Planting,  | day 1 00 

Thinning,  3 days 4 50 

Weeding,  2^  days 3 75 


Total $13  75 


It  will  be  noted  that  this  estimate  of  $27.50  per  acre  does  not 
include  the  cost  of  harvesting. 

Mr.  Sefton  reports  the  yield  of  his  half-acre  as  21,300  pounds, 
or  a little  over  21  tons  per  acre. 

The  estimated  cost  of  production  on  the  one-eighth  acre  at  Hart- 
ford was  at  the  rate  of  $25  per  acre,  and  the  yield  reported  as  from 
14  to  15  tons  per  acre. 

The  yield  at  Puyallup  as  determined  by  actual  weight  was  at 
the  rate  of  45,240  pounds,  or  nearly  23  tons  per  acre. 

No  definite  data  concerning  yield  or  cost  of  production  were 
furnished  from  Vancouver,  Dayton,  or  Waverly.  However,  at 
Dayton  the  yield  per  acre  was  low  for  reasons  already  given,  while 
at  Vancouver  and  Waverly  the  tonnage  was  high. 

Mr.  Otto  Wollweber  makes  the  following  statements  concerning 
the  acre  raised  by  him  at  Crescent:  “The  plat  was  plowed  an 


20 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


average  of  8 inches  deep  in  the  fall.  I estimate  the  cost  of  pro- 
duction as  follows : 


Plowing  eight  inches  deep $150 

Harrowing  to  break  crust,  clod  mashing  and  cutting  up  with  disc  harrow,  one-half 

day . 75 

Harrowing  and  smoothing,  one-fourth  day 40 

Plowing  ten  inches  deep,  disc  harrowing  and  rolling,  one  day 2 00 

Seeding  with  hand  seeder,  one  day  T 1 00 

Hoeing  by  hand,  two  days 2 00 

Thinning,  eight  days 8 00 

Cultivating  by  hand,  three  and  one-half  days 3 50 

Harvesting,  three  days 3 00 


Total $22  15 

This  record  of  cost  of  production  may  be  relied  upon.  Mr. 


Woll weber  has  had  wide  experience  in  raising  sugar  beets,  and  is 
highly  competent  to  make  an  accurate  estimate.  Concerning  yield 
Mr.  W.  says:  “The  yield  was  only  about  5 tons  of  marketable 

beets.”  We  saw  this  acre  early  in  July,  at  which  time  it  promised 
to  yield  20  tons.  The  drouth  became  very  severe  in  the  latter  part 
of  July,  and  this,  together  with  very  hot,  dry  winds,  caused  the 
partial  failure. 

Concerning  the  acre  at  Farmington  which  was  a total  failure, 
Mr.  English  writes  as  follows: 

“Our  climatic  conditions  during  this  spring  were  very  unfavorable  to 
the  growth  of  plants.  The  season  although  opening  rather  early  is  in 
spite  of  it  farther  behind  than  any  other  year.  Dry  weather,  winds,  and 
wet,  cold  weather  were  the  cause.  The  growth  was  too  slow,  and  that  is 
the  reason  the  ravages  of  insects  were  so  killing.  I have  raised  lots  of 
beets  every  year  during  the  past  four  years,  but  never  have  had  such 
miserable  luck  with  them.” 

Mr.  F.  E.  Deeringhoff,  of  Uniontown,  Whitman  county,  also 
raised  two  acres  of  beets,  and  gives  cost  and  yield  in  detail.  These 
statements  should  carry  much  weight,  for  Mr.  Deeringhoff  has 
also  had  large  experience  in  beet  growing  in  Germany.  He  says: 

“The  figures  given  in  the  following  estimate  are  very  high,  and  would 
be  nearly  one-half  less  by  the  use  of  proper  machinery.  The  laborers 
were  inexperienced,  and  the  cultivation  was  not  proper.  The  ground 
was  not  subsoiled.  After  seeding  a heavy  rain  fell  and  washed  the  seed 
away  from  the  side  hill  land.  One-fourth  of  the  two  acres  was  side  hill, 
and  there  the  stand  was  too  thin,  the  beets  being  overgrown.  On  the 
level,  where  the  beets  stood  12  to  18  inches  apart,  they  had  the  proper 
shape  and  weight.  On  account  of  the  ground  not  being  subsoiled,  the 
beets  grew  above  the  ground,  which  caused  an  inferior  quality.  I am 
sure  that  where  the  soil  is  plowed  deep,  and  subsoiled,  the  yield  would 


Bulletin  26.  — Sugar  Beets. 


21 


be  much  larger,  and  the  percentage  of  sugar  higher.  When  proper  culti- 
vation is  given,  I estimate  that  our  soil  could  produce  30  tons  per  acre.” 


Seed $5  60 

Express  on  seed 4 00 

Seeding 2 00 

First  cultivation 3 50 

Thinning 5 00 

Second  cultivation 2 50 

Third  “ 2 50 

Harvesting  and  putting  in  silo 19  00 

Extra  hand  labor  on  weedy  spots 4 00 

Rent  of  land 10  00 


Total $58  10 

Estimated  yield,  40-45  tons. 


This  estimate  makes  the  cost  of  production  $29.05  per  acre. 
Under  date  of  December  8,  1895,  Mr.  D.  writes: 

“There  was  no  second  growth  this  year,  and  if  the  beets  are  cultivated 
properly  there  is  no  danger  of  it  at  all.  Beets  can  be  raised  here  to  the 
very  best  advantage.” 

EXPERIMENTS  IN  1896. 

Experiments  having  been  made  in  1895  in  the  production  of 
home-grown  seed,  it  was  determined  to  use  the  Washington  seed 
for  the  work  of  1896.  Hence  a sufficient  amount  of  it  was  pro- 
cured from  Mr.  F.  E.  Deeringhoff,  of  Uniontown.  Having  pre- 
dicted two  years  before  that  sugar  beet  seed  grown  under  our 
climatic  and  other  local  conditions  would  yield  fully  as  satisfactory 
results  as  the  imported  seed,  we  watched  with  great  interest  the 
outcome  of  these  experiments.  The  following  figures  show,  we 
think,  that  our  predictions  are  at  least  partly  verified.  The  seed 
used  was  of  the  variety  “Vilmorin  blanche.”  It  produces  beets 
having  a pink  skin,  very  white  pulp  and  rosette  shaped  tops.  The 
leaves  cling  closely  to  the  ground.  Some  questions  having  arisen 
concerning  the  probability  of  the  occurrence  of  second  growth  and 
its  effect  upon  the  saccharine  matter,  we  determined  to  confine  the 
work  chiefly  to  a consideration  of  these  points.  For  this  purpose 
beets  were  raised  at  the  Ross  station  at  Puyallup,  at  Crescent, 
Lincoln  county,  and  on  the  college  farm  at  Pullman.  In  order  to 
ascertain  the  rate  of  increase  or  decrease  of  the  saccharine  matter 
(due  to  second  growth)  samples  were  taken  in  a uniform  manner 
and  at  stated  intervals  for  analysis.  We  give  below  the  results  ob- 
tained from  the  samples  sent  from  Puyallup.  [See  next  page.] 


22 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


Date  of 
harvesting. 


Date  of 
analysis. 


II 


it 

s • < 


k 

*>.  o <5 

S»» 


a ? 


*8  § 
a * 
3.4 


Remarks. 


Aug.  14. 
Aug.  24. 
Sept.  3.. 
Sept.  13., 
Sept,  23  .. 
Oct.  3 . 
Oct.  13.. 


Aug.  19. 
Aug.  27. 
Sept.  8. 
Sept.  22. 
Sept.  28. 
Oct.  7. 
Oct.  17. 


80 

49 

61 

54 

60 

62 

73 


0.7 

2.1 

2.7 

3.9 

4.6 

4.4 

5.3 


7.8 

10.8 

11.0 

12.3 

11.8 

12.6 

13.9 


7.4 

10.3 

10.4 
11.7 
11.2 
11.9 
13.2 


69.0 
78.3 
8C.9 
81.2 

76.1 
78.8 
84.7 


Poorly  shaped  beets. 


Oct. 


Nov. 


Oct.  31. 


Average.. 


8 

33 

29 


12.5 

7.3 

3.5 


13.9 

13.5 

14.2 


13.2 

12.8 

13.5 


80.8 

79.9 

82.5 


70 


6.3 


13.8 


13.1 


81.1 


Large. 

Medium. 

Small. 


2. 


Nov.  6. 


Average.. 


7 

23 

25 


13.1 

7.0 

3.4 


12.5 

13.3 

14.1 


11.8 

12.6 

13.4 


77.5 

80.1 

77.0 


55 


6.1  13.6 


12.9 


78.4 


Large. 

Medium. 

Small. 


Nov.  12. 


Nov.  17. 


Average.. 


7 

18 

43 


13.1 

7.1 

2.8 


14.0 

13.9 

14.5 


13.3  80.0 
13.2  81.8 
13.8  82.8 


68 


5.0 


14.3 


13.6 


82.3 


Large. 

Medium. 

Small. 


Nov.  22. 


Nov.  26. 


Average.. 


5 

24 

33 


14.0 

7.1 

2.6 


14.1 
14.4 

15.2 


13.4 
13.7 

14.4 


73.6 

79.6 
79.6 


62 


5.3  14.8 


14.1 


79.1 


Large.  * 
Medium.* 
Small.  * 


Dec.  3. 


Dec.  11. 


Average.. 


3 

37 

34 


13.7 

5.6 

1.9 


12.0 

12.9 

13.2 


11.4 
12.3 

12.5 


74.5 
80.1 

81.5 


74 


4.2 


13.0 


12.3 


80.5 


Large,  f 
Medium,  f 
Small,  f 


* Slightly  frozen.  f Quite  badly  frozen. 

The  sugar  content  and  purity  of  these  samples  are  much  lower 
than  last  year’s  crop  grown  at  the  same  place  from  imported  seed. 
It  is  quite  possible  that  seed  raised  in  the  Palouse  country  is  not 
adapted  to  the  climatic  conditions  of  Puget  Sound.  It  is  more 
probable,  however,  that  the  low  results  are  due  this  year  to  freez- 
ing weather  which  occurred  at  about  the  same  time  the  beets 
reached  their  best  stage  last  year,  thus  preventing  maturity  de- 
velopment. It  will  be  seen  from  the  table  that  the  beets  had  a 
maximum  sugar  content  just  previous  to  the  severe  cold  weather. 
The  samples  tabulated  were  taken  in  a uniform  manner,  and  it  is 
noticeable  that  the  greater  number  in  each  lot  were  very  small  and 
undoubtedly  immature  beets.  The  effects  of  the  freezing  upon 
the  Puyallup  beets  was  more  disastrous  than  upon  those  grown  at 
Pullman  where  the  temperature  was  much  lower. 


Bulletin  26.  — Sugar  Beets. 


23 


The  results  obtained  from  the  Pullman  beets  are  given  below. 
These  samples  were  taken  uniformly  but  with  less  regularity  than 
the  others.  The  analyses  were  made  the  same  day  the  samples 
were  taken. 


Date  of  analysis. 

No.  of  beets 

Average  net 
weight  in 
ounces 

Average  per  cent, 
sugar  in  juice.. 

Average  per  cent, 
sugar  in  beet.... 

Average  purity... 

October  5 

4 

16.5 

15.4 

14.6 

80.2 

October  20 

4 

16.2 

14.2 

13.5 

84.0 

November  7 

5 

13.4 

17.3 

16.5 

80.9 

November  10 

5 

15.0 

15.3 

14.6 

83.2 

December  4 

8 

10.9 

13.7 

13.0 

76.5 

December  11 

9 

9.1 

13.5 

12.8 

86.5 

November  10,  rain  for  three  days,  then  heavy  freeze.  Temperature  November  27  was 
— 12°.  December  11,  beets  in  good  condition ; ground  wet  and  cold. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  these  beets  were  raised  from  home- 
grown seed.  Owing  to  very  late  planting  (May  20)  they  did  not 
reach  their  maximum  saccharine  percentage  until  the  first  week  in 
November.  The  truly  remarkable  character  of  the  figures  given 
cannot  be  fully  realized  without  taking  into  account  the  extraordi- 
nary climatic  features  of  the  month  of  November.  In  order  to 
give  a clear  idea  of  the  effects  of  rain,  and  freezing  weather  upon 
the  beets,  we  insert  here  the  weather  record  from  the  first  of  No- 
vember to  the  date  of  writing. 

NOVEMBER. 


Day. 

Maximum 

temperature.. 

Minimum 

temperature.. 

! 

Rain , in 
inches 

Snow,  in 
inches  

Day. 

Maximum 

temperature.. 

Minimum 

temperature.. 

Rain,  in 
inches 

Snoiv , in 
inches 

1 

46 

32 

17..  . 

29 

23 

0.48 

1.00 

2 

43 

33 

0.33 

18 

32 

20 

3 

45 

32 

19 

30 

21 

4 

45 

33 

0.29 

20 

25 

18 

5 

38 

28 

21 

39 

26 

6 

43 

30 

22 

36 

30 

0.46 

7 

47 

28 

23.  . 

35 

30 

6.00 

8 

45 

37 

1.31 

24 

22 

20 

9 

41 

31 

0.32 

25 

16 

11 

2.00 

10 

41 

32 

0.18 

26. 

12 

—2 

11 

37 

28 

2.00 

27 

13 

—12 

12 

42 

32 

0.20 

28. 

10 

—8 

13 

50 

40 

0.30 

29  . 

18 

2 

14 

57 

46 

0.59 

30 

24 

4 

4.00 

IS 

60 

53 

0 33 

16 

38 

33 

0i52 

Total  .. 

6.81 

15.00 

From  December  1 to  December  12,  the  mean  maximum  temperature  was  43.5°;  the 
mean  minimum,  34.4°.  The  rainfall  was  1.56  inches,  and  the  snowfall  6 inches.l 


24 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


It  is  thus  shown  that  the  samples  of  beets  taken  on  December 
11  had  been  in  the  ground  during  November  and  had  been  exposed 
to  8. 3*7  inches  rain,  21  inches  snow,  and  to  a temperature  of  — 12°, 
followed  by  eleven  days  of  thawing  weather.  In  spite  of  all  these 
circumstances  which  generally  combine  to  cause  rapid  decomposi- 
tion of  the  sugar,  they  show  a sugar  content  of  13.5  per  cent.,  and 
a purity  of  86.5.  Many  fears  have  been  expressed  that  the  rainfall 
during  the  harvesting  season  would  be  a serious  obstacle  to  sugar 
beet  culture  in  this  state.  We  believe  these  fears  to  be  groundless. 
Never  in  the  existence  of  the  weather  bureau  here  has  there  been 
an  autumn  of  such  excessive  rainfall  and  low  temperature.  Yet, 
through  it  all,  and  in  spite  of  it  all,  we  find  beets  remaining  in  the 
ground  even  to  this  date,  in  good  marketable  condition,  and  con- 
taining sugar  1-J-  per  cent,  above  the  factory  requirements.  Mr. 
Otto  Wollweber,  of  Crescent,  who  cared  for  one  of  the  experimental 
acres  in  1895,  also  raised  in  1896  one  acre  from  the  Washington 
seed.  One  hundred  and  sixty-eight  days  intervened  between  the 
dates  of  planting  and  harvesting.  The  analytical  results  given  be- 
low, obtained  from  53  average  samples  taken  from  the  acre,  speak 
for  themselves: 


Date  of  analysis. 

No.  of  beets 

Average  net 
weight  in 
ounces 

Average  per  cent, 
sugar  in  juice.. 

Average  per  cent, 
sugar  in  beet.... 

Average  purity... 

Remarks. 

October  24 

9 

17.1 

18.7 

17.7 

83.9 

Large. 

October  24 

27 

12.3 

18.0 

17.1 

80.3 

Medium. 

October  24 

17 

8.4 

19.7 

18.7 

83.3 

Small. 

Average 

53 

11.9 

18.7 

17.8 

81.9 

We  also  analyzed  for  Mr.  Wollweber  three  samples  of  the  variety 
“ Viimorin  Richest”  which  gave  the  following  averages  : 

Weight,  11.7  ozs. ; sugar  in  juice,  22.5  per  cent.;  sugar  in  beet, 
21.4  per  cent.;  purity,  83.5. 

Knowing  that  Mr.  Henry  J.  Biddle  of  Vancouver,  Wash.,  had 
been  doing  some  experimental  work  during  the  past  year,  we  re- 
quested from  him  a statement  of  his  results.  In  answer  to  our 
request  we  received  from  him  the  following  communication  : 

Portland,  Oregon,  December  12,  1896. 
Prof.  Elton  Fulmer,  Pullman , Wash.: 

Dear  Sir  — I take  pleasure  in  communicating  some  of  the  results  of 
my  beet  analyses  during  the  past  season.  The  beets  on  my  own  place. 


Bulletin  £6.  — Sugar  Beets. 


25 


six  miles  east  of  Vancouver,  Clarke  county,  Wash.,  were  analyzed  every 
10  days  with  the  following  results.  Each  sugar  determination  is  the 
average  of  two  analyses  by  the  method  of  hot  alcohol  extraction,  the 
purity  being  determined  from  the  specific  gravity,  and  direct  polariza- 
tion of  the  juice.  The  samples  were  taken  as  follows  : Every  third  beet 
in  100  feet  of  row,  and  every  third  beet  in  100  feet  of  row  three  rows 
distant.  All  beets  were  taken  in  sampling,  no  matter  how  small,  and 
the  weight  taken  after  washing  and  topping.  The  yield  is  calculated 
from  the  total  weight  of  samples,  and  the  proportion  the  length  of  row 
bears  to  the  length  of  rows  in  an  acre.  In  no  case  were  outside  rows,  or 
end  beets  in  a row  taken,  and  I believe  the  yield  as  given  is  fairly  cor- 
rect. The  beets  were  planted  May  20th.  Seed,  Mette’s  Klein  Wanzle- 
bener.  The  cultivation  they  received  was  insufficient  and  they  suffered 
from  the  hot  weather  in  July.  With  deep  cultivation  the  results  would 
have  been  better. 


Date  of  analysis. 


August  20 

August  30 

September  10. 
September  21. 

October  1 

October  12 

October  22 

November  1... 
November  11. 
November  20. 


No.  of 
beets. 

Average 
weight  in 
ounces. 

Tons  per 
acre. 

Per  cent, 
sugar  in 
beet. 

Purity. 

92 

3.4 

4.5 

13.0 

98 

4.0 

5.5 

14.2 

92 

4.8 

7.1 

14.4 

83 

5.8 

7.9 

14.1 

87.1 

86 

5.9 

8.4 

14.5 

88 

6.5 

9.5 

15.3 

89.9 

77 

6.6 

8.3 

15.7 

90.8 

88 

6.4 

9.3 

15.9 

85.1 

96 

6.8 

10.7 

15.0 

87.3 

31 

6.4 

14.8 

86.2 

The  beets  were  dug  November  15,  and  part  stored  in  shed  and  part 
pitted.  Analyses  were  again  made  December  8. 


No.  of 
beets. 

Average 
weight  in 
ounces. 

Tons  per 
acre. 

Per  cent, 
sugar  in 
beet. 

Purity. 

From  shed 

22 

8.0 

14.0 

86.4 

From  pit, 

24 

9.7 

13.8 

85.5 

The  latter  part  of  November  the  temperature  fell  to  11°  Farenheit,  and 
beets  in  the  ground  were  frozen.  I am  inclined  to  think  that  unless 
severe  freezing  weather  occurs  beets  will  keep  as  well  in  this  climate 
when  left  in  the  ground  as  when  pitted.  In  any  case  a loss  of  fully  1 
per  cent,  of  sugar  must  be  expected. 

Beets  from  fourteen  localities  in  Clarke  county  gave  by  alcohol  extrac- 
tion an  average  of  15.2  per  cent,  sugar  in  beet,  and  86.0  purity.  These 
were  all  analyses  of  large  samples  taken  by  myself,  and  representing 
fairly  well  the  patches  from  which  they  were  taken.  A number  of  other 
analyses  were  made  from  samples  sent  to  me.  Some  of  these  were  irri- 
gated beets,  and  some  quite  unripe,  and  gave  on  the  average  poorer  re- 


26 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


suits.  The  poorest  result  obtained  was  12.25  per  cent,  sugar  in  beet 
with  purity  80.2.  Average  weight  38.8  ounces  from  irrigated  beets. 

Yours  truly,  Henry  J.  Biddle. 

In  order  to  compare  our  harvesting  season  with  that  of  other 
beet-growing  sections  we  quote  the  following  extracts  from  the 
weekly  Berlin  letters  published  in  the  Louisiana  Planter. 

Under  date  of  October  1*7,  1896: 

‘‘The  weather  with  the  exception  of  one  or  two  days  has  become  moist 
again,  but  at  the  same  time  the  temperature  is  proportionately  warm,  so 
that  the  meteorological  conditions  are  pretty  much  the  opposite  of  what 
has  been  desired;  for,  instead  of  improving  the  quality  of  the  beets,  they 
tend  rather  to  augment  the  quantity.  It  can  now  be  considered  a settled 
fact  that  the  saccharine  content  of  the  beet  is  much  inferior  to  last  year. 
Reports  to  hand  from  abroad  are  about  of  the  same  tenor  — almost  every- 
where rain  and  partly  also  cold  weather  interrupting  the  improvement 
of  the  crop  which  would  take  place  on  the  advent  of  better  weather.” 

Under  date  of  October  24,  1896: 

“The  week  under  review  was  ushered  in  by  thunderstorms  and  heavy 
rains,  and  also  a couple  of  dry  days  following  this  phenomena,  which  in 
this  country  at  this  time  of  year  is  somewhat  unusual.  The  weather  on 
the  whole  was  again  predominantly  wet  and  thus  perfectly  the  contrary 
of  what  is  now  desired  on  the  part  of  the  manufacturers,  as  it  prevents 
the  improvement  of  the  quality  of  the  beets.  In  some  places  even  a 
lowering  of  the  saccharine  contents  has  been  observed,  and  what  is  still 
worse,  the  harvesting  of  the  beets  is  sadly  hampered,  the  soil  being  too 
wet  for  man  and  beast  to  enter  the  beet  fields,  a calamity  which  in  certain 
sections  has  caused  a temporary  interruption  of  the  working  of  the  fac- 
tory. Besides  the  beets,  if  harvested  now,  are  fraught  with  dirt  so  that 
their  cleaning  is  very  difficult  and  expensive,  and  those  now  put  in  silos 
are  exposed  to  early  rottening.  You  see  the  early  part  of  the  campaign 
has  to  deal  with  many  inconveniences  which  can  be  mitigated  only  by  the 
early  advent  of  dry  and  cool  weather.  This  latter  kind  of  climatic  cir- 
cumstances seems  to  have  existed  in  Austria,  but  in  France  it  has  been 
also  too  wet,  and  so  it  was  more  or  less  in  Belgium  and  Holland,  while 
Russia  reports  good  harvesting  conditions.” 

Under  date  of  October  31,  1896: 

“With  the  exception  of  the  western  part  of  the  empire,  where,  in  con- 
sequence of  heavy  rains,  inundations  have  taken  place,  the  weather  has 
been  in  the  majority  of  the  beet  districts  dry,  and  on  certain  days  even 
sunny,  which  means  a great  and  favorable  change  with  regard  to  beet 
harvesting.  The  fields  have  fairly  dried  up  so  that  almost  everywhere, 
particularly  in  the  central  and  eastern  provinces,  work  could  be  resumed 
and  carried  on  with  activity,  although  the  state  of  the  weather  is  becom- 
ing of  more  importance  for  the  preservation  of  the  beets  in  the  silos.  In 
this  respect  the  temperature  is  a little  too  high,  and  it  must  be  feared 


Bulletin  26.  — Sugar  Beets. 


27 


that  if  no  early  variation  should  take  place,  the  beets  would  soon  either 
rot  or  develop  a new  vegetation,  the  more  so  as  they  have  been  piled  up 
in  a moist  state  — the  outcome  of  which  would  be  a serious  loss  of  quality. 
In  Austria  the  weather  was,  in  the  greater  part  of  the  week,  dry  and  cool. 
France  had  too  much  rain,  hampering  the  beet  crop  in  many  places.  In 
Holland  and  Belgium  wet  weather  also  interfered  with  crop  work,  whilst 
in  Russia  they  are  fairly  satisfied  on  this  hand.” 

Under  date  of  November  7,  1896: 

“The  first  days  and,  indeed,  the  greater  part  of  the  week  under  re- 
view, were  foggy  and  rainy,  with  a mild  temperature  — all  circumstances 
which,  at  this  period  of  the  season,  are  utterly  disliked  by  the  beet 
growers  as  well  as  by  the  fabricants;  the  harvesting  being  again  impeded, 
the  beets  are  being  further  exposed  to  losses  in  quality.  Toward  the  end 
of  the  week,  however,  there  was  a sudden  change.  A night  frost  set  in 
which  has  been  so  intense  that  another  danger  loomed  up — that  of  the 
freezing  of  the  beets  still  unprotected  in  consequence  of  the  frequent  in- 
terruptions of  crop  work.  In  France  the  weather  has  been  more  favor- 
able. In  Austria  it  has  been  about  the  same  as  in  this  country,  while 
Belgium  and  Holland  complained  of  too  much  water  and  all  the  disad- 
vantages connected  with  it.” 

Under  date  of  November  17,  1896: 

“We  are  now  in  the  season  when  autumn  and  winter  strive  to  get  the 
better  of  one  another.  This  necessarily  leads  to  changeable  meteorologi- 
cal conditions,  and  such  we  have  had  throughout  the  last  week ; sunny 
and  dark,  cool  and  mild,  and  wet  and  dry  weather,  relieving  one  an- 
other incessantly.  But  the  worst  of  it  was  that  the  mildness  and  wetness 
predominated,  while  at  present,  for  the  good  keeping  of  the  beets,  cool 
and  dry  weather  is  required.  The  complaints  that  the  beets  are  de- 
livered at  the  factory  with  enormous  masses  of  dirt  are  almost  universal, 
and  deduction  as  high  as  40  per  cent,  has  been  made  for  that  reason  on 
the  weight  of  the  delivery.  At  the  same  time  the  quality  suffers  very 
much,  and  it  is  questionable  whether  the  present  content  of  sugar  will  be 
preserved.  An  unfavorable  turn  has  also  been  taken  by  the  weather  in 
the  other  beet  growing  countries  of  Europe.  Rains  have  set  in  again  in 
Austria  and  France,  where  about  the  same  prospects  are  prevailing  as 
here.” 

From  Watsonville  (Cal.)  Pajaronian,  November  26,  1896: 

“The  prophecies  of  a wet  winter  are  in  a fair  way  to  be  fulfilled.  On 
Friday  last  we  had  a foretaste  in  the  shape  of  a shower,  and  on  Saturday 
night  the  windows  of  heaven  opened,  and  it  rained  until  Tuesday  after- 
noon— 4.37  inches  fell  during  the  storm  in  the  Pajaro  valley,  and  about 
half  that  amount  in  the  San  Benito  and  Salinas  valleys.  Beet  hauling  is 
now  suspended,  but  will  be  resumed  at  the  end  of  the  week  if  fair  weather 
ensues.  There  are  still  about  30,000  tons  of  beets  in  the  fields  of  this 
valley.” 


28 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


From  Chino  (Cal.)  Champion,  October  23,  1896: 

“The  farmers  are  exerting  themselves  to  get  as  many  of  the  fields  as 
possible  cleaned  up,  but  1,500  to  2,000  tons  will  probably  remain  out.  The 
crop  of  this  season  is  less  than  was  anticipated  some  wreeks  ago;  yet, 
when  the  condition  of  the  season  is  taken  into  consideration,  and  the  fact 
that  for  18  months  we  have  had  less  than  seven  inches  of  rain  (the 
smallest  for  20  years),  it  must  be  conceded  that  the  crop  has  done  re- 
markably well.” 

From  Lehi  (Utah)  Banner,  November  12,  1896: 

“Owing  to  the  recent  storm,  the  farmers  have  not  been  digging  their 
beets  quite  so  fast  as  formerly.  But  a glance  at  the  company’s  meteoro- 
logical chart  reveals  the  fact  that  we  have  been  visited  with  a similar 
storm  about  this  time  of  the  season  for  the  past  three  years.  Also,  pro- 
viding the  predictions  of  the  chart  prove  true,  we  may  expect  a season 
of  dry  weather  now,  during  which  the  beets  will  greatly  improve.” 

We  have  given  these  extracts  somewhat  at  length  in  order  to 
show  that  in  the  districts  where  beets  are  grown  successfully  for 
factory  purposes,  the  meteorological  conditions  are  far  from  ideal; 
and  that,  at  times,  serious  difficulties  are  encountered  in  harvesting 
and  hauling  to  the  factory.  Not  only  so,  but,  at  times,  even  the 
manufacture  is  unprofitable,  due  to  the  deteriorated  character  of  the 
beets  brought  about  by  adverse  climatic  conditions.  We  think  we 
have  not  given  undue  importance  to  this  point.  We  must  insist 
that  no  effective  argument  can  he  made  against  the  establishment  of 
the  beet  sugar  industry  in  this  state , based  on  the  character  of  our 
fall  weather.  We  assert  this  not  only  because  our  rainfall  and  tem- 
perature are  no  more  unfavorable  than  elsewhere , but  also  because  the 
beets  raised  here  are , for  some  reason , less  sensitive  to  abnormal  con- 
ditions. 

We  have  been  asked  many  times  if  it  would  not  be  possible  to 
have  in  this  state  one  central  refinery  to  which  the  crude  product 
or  raw  sugar  from  small  surrounding  factories  might  be  shipped. 
Our  negative  answer  to  this  question  has  been  met  by  the  assertion 
that  such  is  the  arrangement  in  beet-growing  Europe,  and  that  what 
is  done  there  can  be  done  here.  We  wish  to  take  this  opportunity 
to  state  once  again  that  the  central  refinery  plan  is  not  only  not 
feasible,  but  wholly  impracticable,  for  the  State  of  Washington. 
Beet  sugar  factories  erected  here  must  refine  their  own  product.  It 
is  true  that  90  per  cent,  or  more  of  the  factories  in  Europe  make 
only  raw  sugar.  But  in  Europe  there  are  practically  no  distances; 
the  beet  sugar  industry  is  concentrated  in  a pretty  small  area,  and 


Bulletin  26.  — Sugar  Beets. 


29 


the  refineries  are  located  in  the  midst  of  the  factories.  Another 
important  reason  why  the  factories  in  Germany  produce  only  the 
raw  sugar,  is  because  but  little  granulated  sugar  is  used  by  the 
public.  They  use  chiefly  the  “casted”  cubes  (not  the  American 
pressed  tubes).  To  make  these  cubes  requires  a special  kind  of 
machinery,  and  the  work  is  done  by  the  refineries.  The  granulated 
sugar  used  in  this  country  is  the  natural  form  of  sugar  when  it 
crystallizes  from  solution.  These  sugar  granules  are  the  first 
product  in  European  as  well  as  in  American  factories;  but  here  we 
purify  these  crystals  and  render  them  fit  for  consumption,  while 
there  they  are  left  mingled  with  a large  amount  of  molasses.  The 
granulated  product  of  an  American  factory  polarizes  99.6  per  cent, 
sugar,  while  the  raw  sugar  taken  to  the  refineries  in  Europe  only 
polarizes  about  88  per  cent.  The  difference  in  the  cost  of  a plant 
for  turning  out  raw  or  granulated  sugar  is  very  small  — hardly  to 
be  considered.  It  is  the  output  which  makes  the  difference  in  favor 
of  the  raw  product.  Suppose,  for  example,  10  per  cent,  of  granu- 
lated sugar  polarizing  99.6  per  cent,  is  produced  from  beets  of  a 
given  quality;  then  the  same  beets  would  yield  about  12  per  cent, 
of  raw  sugar  polarizing  88  per  cent.  Even  if  both  outputs  be  re- 
duced to  pure  sugar,  the  latter  is  the  most  profitable.  This  is 
easily  understood  wrhen  we  take  into  consideration  the  fact  that  the 
granulated  sugar  is  washed  with  water  in  the  centrifugal  machines, 
during  which  washing  some  of  the  sugar  is  necessarily  dissolved  — 
running  off  as  molasses.  To  be  sure,  this  molasses  is  used  over 
again,  and  some  of  the  sugar  recovered,  but  still  the  loss  is  a seri- 
ous one.  Although  the  manufacture  of  raw  sugar  may  be  more 
profitable,  the  time  has  not  yet  come  in  the  United  States  for  cen- 
tral refineries.  The  factories  are  too  far  apart,  and  freight  charges 
too  high  for  profit  either  to  the  manufacturer  or  refiner.  At  least 
thirty  or  forty  factories  are  needed  to  supply  one  refinery,  and  until 
these  factories  are  in  existence,  the  plan  cannot  be  successful.  Two 
refineries  have  been  established  in  the  central  portion  of  the  United 
States,  but  both  failed  because  of  too  great  distance  from  the  source 
of  sugar  supply,  and  lack  of  cheap  transportation.  The  Chino 
(Cal.)  factory  shipped  raw  sugar  one  year  to  a refinery,  but  inas- 
much as  it  has  not  been  repeated,  we  conclude  that  the  experiment 
was  not  a profitable  one.  Washington  needs  beet  sugar  factories 
complete  in  themselves. 

In  concluding  this  bulletin  we  wish  to  give  grateful  acknowledg- 


30 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station . 


ment  to  the  following  named  persons,  for  valuable  assistance  ren- 
dered during  the  progress  of  the  experimental  work:  E.  B.  Moulux, 
I.  B.  Harris,  F.  A.  English,  John  R.  Reavis,  E.  H.  Morrison,  Mr. 
and  Mrs.  Otto  Wollweber,  W.  T.  Clark,  B.  P.  Shifflette,  T.  J. 
Patterson,  J.  Swinehart,  J.  W.  Sefton,  Henry  Beckett,  Supt.  F. 
A.  Huntley,  J.  C.  Bush,  C.  M.  Dietrich,  A.  A.  Quarnberg,  Leroy 
Brown  and  F.  E.  Deeringhoff.  We  also  extend  thanks  to  the  press 
of  the  state  for  their  cooperation  and  encouragement.  We  are 
convinced  that  much  practical  benefit  to  the  material  prosperity  of 
the  state  will  be  the  final  outcome  of  this  experimental  work  with 
the  culture  of  the  sugar  beet. 

SUMMARY. 

The  experiments  of  1895  with  acre  tracts  show  that  beets  grown 
on  a commercial  scale  in  this  state,  possess  as  high  and  satisfactory 
character  as  those  grown  on  small  experimental  plats. 

From  the  estimates  made  by  those  growing  the  experimental 
acres,  and  others  who  have  had  experience  in  sugar  beet  culture, 
the  cost  of  production  when  carried  on  commercially  will  not  ex- 
ceed and  in  all  probability  will  fall  below  $30  per  acre. 

From  the  yield  furnished  by  beets,  both  in  small  areas  and  on 
acre  tracts,  it  is  safe  to  assert  that  under  proper  conditions  of  culti- 
vation, in  an  average  season,  sugar  beets  will  give  an  average  yield 
of  18  to  20  tons  per  acre. 

The  experiments  already  conducted  seem  to  indicate  that  Wash- 
ington has  a great  future  in  the  production  of  beet  seed.  Of  course, 
it  is  not  proven  by  the  experiments  of  one  year  that  the  high  char- 
acter of  our  home-grown  seed  will  be  maintained  throughout  a 
period  of  years.  As  is  well  known,  the  tendency  of  all  seeds  is 
to  deteriorate  rather  than  to  improve  or  even  maintain  their  char- 
acter. It  has  been  only  by  careful  work  and  selective  processes  in 
the  matter  of  raising  seed  that  the  sugar  beet  has  reached  its 
present  high  state  of  development.  It  is  not  to  be  expected  that 
good  beet  seed  can  be  raised  here  by  every  one  who  attempts  it. 
On  the  contrary,  failure  would  follow  the  majority  of  such  attempts. 
However,  a thorough  knowledge  of  the  habits  of  the  sugar  beet, 
coupled  with  familiarity  with  the  best  methods  of  beet  seed  pro- 
duction, will  undoubtedly  lead  to  success  in  that  industry. 

Our  climatic  conditions,  both  as  regards  rainfall  and  temperature, 


Bulletin  26.  — Sugar  Beets. 


31 


are  as  favorable  to  the  successful  cultivation  of  the  sugar  beet  as 
those  that  exist  in  beet-sugar  producing  districts. 

Beets  raised  in  this  state  have  a less  tendency  to  take  on  a 
second  growth  or  to  be  unfavorably  affected  by  unusual  conditions 
of  the  weather. 

The  central  refinery  plan  is  entirely  premature  for  the  conditions 
existing  here  and  elsewhere  in  the  United  States. 


APPENDIX. 


Reference  was  made  in  the  first  pages  of  the  foregoing  records 
of  experimental  work  to  Bulletin  15.  For  the  convenience  of  those 
who  may  not  have  this  bulletin,  we  give  herewith  a condensed  yet 
detailed  summary  of  the  results  there  recorded.  This  was  issued 
as  Press  Bulletin  No.  4 in  December,  1894. 

PRESS  BULLETIN  No.  4. 

Washington  Agricultural  College,  Experiment  Station, 

Pullman,  Wash.,  Dec.  — , 1894. 

To  the  Editor: 

Last  spring  the  chemical  department  of  the  experiment  station  began 
a series  of  tests  on  the  adaptability  of  Washington  soil  and  climate  to  the 
production  of  sugar  beets  suitable  for  use  in  the  manufacture  of  sugar. 
We  advertised  to  furnish  seed  free  of  charge  to  all  who  would  apply  for 
the  same  and  agree  to  follow  certain  specified  directions  for  cultivation. 
The  number  of  applications  received  was  much  greater  than  anticipated, 
and  seed  was  furnished  to  1,050  different  parties.  When  the  beets  began 
to  mature  in  the  early  fall,  each  man  who  received  seed  was  requested  to 
send  samples  for  analysis,  the  station  paying  transportation  charges. 
In  response  to  this  request  beets  were  received  from  372  farmers,  coming 
from  101  different  towns. 

The  very  widespread  interest  manifested  in  this  experimental  work 
demands  that  the  results  obtained  from  the  analyses  should  be  equally 
wide  spread,  and  the  press  of  the  state  must  be  depended  upon  to  make 
these  results  known  to  the  largest  number  possible. 

There  are  included  in  the  above,  1,666  analyses  of  seven  different  va- 
rieties of  beets,  which  give  a general  state  average  of  14.2  percent,  sugar 
and  a purity  of  82.6.  One  variety,  the  “ Vilmorin  Improved,”  has  shown 
itself  to  be  wholly  unadapted  to  our  soil  and  climatic  conditions.  Of  this 
variety  122  analyses  were  made  which  averaged  only  11.1  per  cent,  sugar, 
and  purity  77.0.  Eliminating  this  variety  from  the  general  average,  we 
have  1,544  analyses  which  give  for  the  entire  state  the  following  average: 
Weight,  22  oz.;  sugar,  15.2  per  cent.;  purity,  83.8.  This  is  a remarkable 
showing,  particularly  as  regards  purity. 


34 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


Beets  were  received  and  analyzed  from  45  towns  west  and  56  east  of 
the  Cascade  mountains.  The  following  comparison  will  be  of  interest 
when  we  consider  the  wide  variations  of  conditions  between  these  two 
portions  of  the  state : 


Locality . 

No.  of 

No.  of 

Average  wt. 

Av.  per  cent. 

Average 

towns. 

analyses. 

of  beet. 

of  sugar. 

purity. 

Eastern  Washington 

56 

1,270 

23  oz. 

14.9 

82.4 

Western  Washington 

45 

396 

26  oz. 

13.3 

82.8 

These  averages  include  all  analyses.  Eliminating  from  them  the 
variety  “ Yilmorin  Improved”  the  following  results  are  obtained: 


Locality . 

No.  of 

No.  of 

Average  wt. 

Av.per  cent. 

Average 

towns. 

analyses. 

of  beet. 

of  sugar. 

purity. 

Eastern  Washington 

56 

1,188 

21  oz. 

15.5 

83.8 

Western  Washington 

45 

360 

24  oz. 

14.9 

83.8 

The  above  results  seem  to  demonstrate  beyond  a doubt  that  the  state 
of  Washington  is  preeminently  adapted  to  the  culture  of  beets  for  sugar 
making  purposes.  We  are  very  much  gratified  with  the  hearty  coopera- 
tion that  has  been  extended  to  us  in  the  work,  and  the  general  interest 
that  has  been  manifested.  Reports  will  be  sent  as  soon  as  possible  to  all 
who  furnished  samples  for  analysis. 

Further  experiments  will  be  carried  on  next  year  with  special  refer- 
ence to  the  yield  per  acre  and  cost  of  production.  Seed  will  again  be 
distributed  free  of  cost  to  those  who  apply.  It  is  hoped  that  many  will 
cooperate  with  us  in  this  next  year’s  work.  Applications  for  seed  should 
be  made  not  later  than  March  1. 

In  the  meantime  let  every  one  interested  in  the  material  development 
of  our  state,  keep  the  sugar  beet  question  thoroughly  agitated;  let  sec- 
tional feelings  give  way  to  the  general  welfare,  and  it  will  not  be  many 
years  before  all  the  sugar  consumed  in  our  state  will  be  manufactured 
within  her  borders. 


Bulletin  26.  — Sugar  Beets. 


35 


The  following  tables  are  self  explanatory  : 

WESTERN  WASHINGTON. 


Town. 

County. 

No.  of  analy- 
ses   

Av.  weight  of 
beet  in  ozs 

Av.  per  cent, 
of  sugar 

Av.  purity 

Best  single 
analysis. 

Poorest  sin- 
gle analysis. 

Sugar.... 

Purity... 

Sugar.... 

Purity... 

6 

15 

13.7 

84.5 

14.5 

85.3 

13.0 

84.5 

4 

31 

9.6 

80.3 

10.6 

81.8 

8.2 

73.2 

2 

40 

12.8 

80.0 

12.9 

81.6 

12.7 

78.4 

4 

42 

14.4 

89.2 

]5.9 

92.4 

11.8 

81.4 

6 

58 

13.5 

84.8 

14.5 

88.9 

12.0 

76.9 

2 

23 

11.2 

78.0 

11.5 

79.9 

10.8 

76.1 

6 

44 

14.2 

87.7 

14.8 

88.6 

13.4 

87.0 

6 

42 

12.1 

83.2 

14.0 

85.4 

9.8 

80.7 

8 

17 

12.6 

81.5 

15.5 

85.6 

8.5 

74.5 

3 

5 

15.3 

83.2 

15.8 

86.3 

15.0 

82.0 

Chehalis. 

Lewis 

8 

22 

12.6 

78.6 

13.3 

79.2 

11.7 

80.7 

Dungeness 

Clallam 

21 

80 

10.2 

81.0 

15.3 

86.4 

6.3 

70.0 

Elma 

Chehalis 

12 

35 

12.6 

78.9 

14.2 

84.0 

11.5 

79.3 

T^ntprprisft  

Whatpnm 

20 

16 

14.9 

85.8 

16.7 

90.7 

12.3 

74.1 

Fid algo  

Skagit 

7 

3 

16.4 

88.6 

18.3 

88.4 

13.8 

85.2 

Fern  Hill 

Fierce 

7 

12 

14.9 

84.5 

16  9 

87.5 

13  0 

74.3 

Plnrp.noft 

Snohomish 

4 

54 

12.2 

84.6 

14.4 

90.6 

9.2 

74.2 

Home  Valley 

Skamania 

1 

3 

12.4 

82.7 

Hartford  

Snohomish 

16 

18 

14.7 

87  5 

17.0 

92.4 

11.0 

80.9 

T1  wa.eo 

Pacific 

22 

18 

14.4 

84.4 

17.0 

93.4 

10.4 

74.3 

Ppnt 

Kin  or 

18 

20 

13.3 

79  0 

16.5 

84.6 

10.0 

70.9 

K el  so 

• 

Cowlitz 

2 

36 

14.6 

83.5 

15.5 

86.5 

13.7 

80.6 

Kalama 

Cowlitz 

6 

26 

13.1 

83.4 

13.8 

84.7 

11.1 

78.2 

La,  Conner 

Skagit 

14 

24 

14.5 

86.0 

17.4 

92.5 

12.6 

80.8 

Markham 

Chehalis 

4 

27 

15.6 

91.4 

16.1 

96.4 

14.9 

87.6 

Montesano 

Chehalis 

12 

35 

11.4 

77.7 

16.8 

92.3 

5.4 

60.0 

Menlo 

Pacific 

12 

17 

16.1 

88.8 

17.8 

95.2 

13.7 

82.5 

Marysville 

Snohomish 

10 

17 

13.0 

79.6 

15.1 

92.6 

11.1 

72.6 

Nnrmflti 

Snohomish 

4 

45 

12.5 

83.3 

15.1 

87.8 

10.5 

80.7 

Nooksack 

Whatcom 

4 

34 

15.2 

86.3 

16.4 

90.1 

13.0 

78.3 

Napa, vine  

Lewis 

11 

26 

13.5 

81.4 

15.8 

86.3 

11.5 

76.7 

Newcastle 

King 

6 

21 

11.5 

72.0 

13.4 

78.4 

10.0 

67.1 

Orti  ng 

Pi  eroe  

16 

26 

14.4 

85.4 

16.0 

88.9 

9.4 

75.8 

Quilcene  ... 

.Teflferson  

12 

33 

13.7 

88.8 

16.7 

91.7 

10.3 

83.8 

Roche  Ha.rhor  .. 

Sa.n  Juan 

2 

38 

9.9 

64.9 

10.9 

69.0 

9.0 

60.9 

Sftrt  ro 

Skagit 

8 

21 

13.3 

80.1  ' 

14.0 

79.1 

12.3 

78.9 

Sultan 

Snohomish 

10 

34 

14.8 

91.3 

16.5 

94.3 

12.2 

87.1 

Skamokowa 

Wahkiakum 

4 

31 

14.1 

81.4 

15.2 

86.9 

12.4 

74.7 

Toledo 

Lewis 

41 

22 

14.0 

84.7 

17.1 

90.0 

7.7 

74.0 

W411a,pa 

Pacific 

2 

13 

15.7 

87.7 

17.6 

90.2 

13.9 

85.3 

Whatcom 

Whatcom 

12 

15 

11.8 

77.9 

13.6 

79.5 

9.0 

69.2 

Woolley 

Skagit 

4 

28 

13.3 

80.0 

14.2 

85.5 

12.5 

78.7 

Wiekersha.m 

Whatcom 

7 

12 

13.0 

81.0 

13.7 

83.0 

12.0 

87.0 

Wana 

Snohomish 

6 

41 

11.4 

77.5 

14  7 

87.5 

7 7 

64.1 

Wabash 

King 

4 

12 

11.8 

82.2 

11.9 

83.8 

11.7 

88.6 

36 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


EASTERN  WASHINGTON. 


Av.  weight  of 
beet  in  ozs 

tu 

<5 

Best  single 
analysis. 

Poorest  sin- 
gle analysis. 

Town. 

County. 

: 'S. 

: S 
: <5* 

oer  cent, 
sugar 

3. 

j Sugar 

Purity ... 

Sugar 

Purity ... 

23 

13 

16.7 

85.3 

21.9 

92.7 

12.0 

77.4 

6 

17 

14.3 

84.9 

16.1 

86.1 

12.5 

87.4 

8 

19 

15.3 

83.5 

18.1 

86.2 

13.6 

80.0 

5 

47 

15.2 

80.2 

16.5 

84.2 

14.6 

77.6 

4 

22 

15.7 

89.9 

16.5 

91.1 

15.0 

88.2 

2 

27 

8.3 

58.7 

10.0 

65.3 

6.5 

52.0 

Cheney 

Spokane 

8 

35 

15.4 

80.5 

17.2 

87.0 

13.9 

74.3 

41 

15 

15.5 

83.1 

19.4 

82.6 

10.7 

84.9 

129 

22 

15.2 

84.1 

19.8 

94.3 

11.6 

83.1 

11 

22 

]5.8 

86.1 

19.8 

87.2 

13.4 

81.7 

24 

33 

14.2 

80.5 

17.2 

86.9 

4.7 

50.5 

54 

19 

16.0 

84.1 

21.1 

93.3 

7.0 

62.5 

10 

7 

16.9 

78.4 

19.3 

88.9 

10.3 

51.5 

9 

18 

15.8 

85.7 

20.9 

92.0 

12.5 

69.1 

Walla  Walla 

8 

22 

14.4 

86.1 

15.1 

91.5 

13.5 

83.3 

2 

3 

10.6 

81.5 

11.6 

78.9 

9.5 

84.1 

98 

10 

15.9 

85.2 

20.0 

94.7 

9.5 

76.6 

Fletcher  

A da, ms 

6 

10 

14.0 

86.0 

15.3 

86.4 

10.5 

84.7 

Fairfield 

Spokane 

74 

13 

15.4 

85.3 

17.6 

92.1 

10.3 

72.0 

Farmington  

Whitman 

20 

53 

12.3 

78.1 

15.0 

82.9 

5.8 

57.4 

Fn.llons  

Whitman 

6 

14 

15.8 

89.1 

17.4 

85.6 

13.5 

87.1 

Garfield 

Whitman 

46 

17 

15.2 

85.4 

19.8 

96.6 

10.1 

77.7 

Guy 

Whitman 

25 

24 

15.3 

85.5 

17.8 

90.3 

10.9 

72.1 

Gould  City 

• Garfield 

2 

48 

14.3 

80.3 

14.6 

81.1 

14.0 

79.5 

Harvey 

Stevens 

8 

24 

15.7 

82.4 

17.7 

86.3 

12.0 

71.4 

lfpittilfi  Palls  

Stevens 

8 

12 

15.6 

85.0 

17.1 

89.1 

13.8 

76.7 

Larene 

Lincoln 

4 

10 

17.2 

92.7 

18.5 

95.7 

15.0 

90.9 

Latah 

Spokane 

20 

26 

14.5 

82.4 

17.0 

82.5 

11.0 

77.5 

Marshall 

Spokane 

2 

45 

13.2 

81.6 

14.2 

85.0 

12.2 

78.2 

Medical  Lake 

Spokane 

6 

15 

14.4 

74.3 

18.5 

78.0 

11.2 

66.1 

May  view 

Garfield 

13 

34 

14.2 

78.5 

16.6 

84.7 

11.9 

69.6 

Oakesdale 

Whitman 

21 

38 

13.5 

80.5 

16.6 

86.5 

9.3 

77.5 

Pom  eroy 

Garfield 

32 

37 

14.8 

80.1 

17.6 

82.2 

11.0 

66.6 

Pa.lonse 

Whitman 

23 

15 

15.6 

83.8 

18.6 

88.6 

12.9 

81.1 

Present! 

Walla  Walla 

6 

30 

15.7 

84.3 

17.5 

89.7 

13.7 

81.1 

Pine  City 

Whitman 

6 

23 

16.8 

85.5 

18.8 

87.4 

14.8 

81.3 

Pullman 

Whitman 

106 

20 

15.8 

84.4 

19.4 

89.8 

12.3 

77.4 

Pat, a, ha, 

Garfield 

9 

36 

13.0 

79.0 

16.6 

86.5 

10.8 

71.1 

Plaza  

Spokane 

8 

27 

16.1 

85.5 

19.3 

91.4 

13.2 

75.9 

Reardon 

Lincoln  

18 

19 

16.4 

84.3 

17.9 

86.9 

14.3 

71.1 

Rockford 

Spokane 

8 

15 

13.7 

82.1 

15.1 

86.8 

12.9 

83.8 

Rosalia 

Whitman 

15 

16 

16.7 

89.4 

19.6 

90.3 

14.3 

82.2 

R.i  pa  ri  a 

Columbia 

4 

14 

15.9 

85.9 

16.3 

90.5 

13.9 

81.3 

St.  .Tohn 

Whitman 

5 

7 

15.4 

85.9 

16.8 

89.4 

14.1 

83.4 

St.ept.oe 

Whitman 

12 

43 

14.5 

82.1 

16.8 

87.4 

12.0 

70.6 

Sprague 

Lincoln 

3 

4 

14.6 

67.6 

15.5 

75.6 

13.0 

58.0 

Sta.rhnek 

Columbia 

6 

18 

13.8 

75.9 

17.0 

84.6 

11.4 

70.3 

Spoka.ne 

Spokane 

32 

19 

15.5 

82.6 

19.8 

94.1 

12.6 

76.8 

Sunset 

Whitman 

4 

42 

14.2 

82.9 

16.1 

88.4 

11.9 

78.8 

Tekoa 

Whitman 

19 

20 

14.2 

82.3 

17.4 

91.1 

11.1 

79.9 

TTn  ion  town  

Whitman 

120 

28 

15.2 

82.7 

18.2 

89.2 

11.2 

75.7 

Unknown 

36 

18 

15.7 

85.1 

21.5 

90.7 

8.5 

72.7 

Waverly  

Spokane 

65 

18 

15.1 

84.4 

17.8 

87.6 

9.5 

80.5 

Welch 

Spokane 

12 

12 

15.1 

79.8 

18.3 

88.4 

12.4 

71.6 

Walla  Walla 

Walla  Walla 

14 

66 

12.2 

74.4 

17.5 

81.8 

7.0 

49.6 

Yakima  City 

Yakima 

4 

23 

13.8 

80.1 

14.4 

82.3 

13.0 

78.3 

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